An Analysis of the Linkage Between Agricultural Exports and Economic Growth in Pakistan

Summary

This article examines the relationship between agricultural exports and economic growth. Pakistan is used as a case study due to its large amounts of agricultural exports which have competed with industry for government support. This study estimates three simultaneous equations representing GDP, agricultural exports, and total imports while incorporating factors such as income remittances from abroad, investment, and manufactured exports as independent variables. The timing of this information is critical as Pakistan's policy makers now face major agricultural reforms in their quest for development. The estimation results show that a favorable relationship exists between agricultural exports and growth in GDP.     

Export taxes and sectoral economic growth: evidence from cotton and yarn markets in Pakistan

Pakistan used an export tax on raw cotton from 1988-1995 in order to suppress the internal price of cotton to benefit the domestic yarn industry. An analysis was conducted to estimate the impact of this policy on both the cotton and yarn sectors. These effects were simulated using the results ol a structural econometric model of these sectors of Pakistan's economy Results indicated that the export tax had a negative impact on the growth rale in the cotton sector, while having little or no impact on the yarn sector. Thus, the export lax did not achieve its objective of increasing the growth rate of value-added (yarn) production above what would have occurred naturally.     

Is Pakistan's Growth Rate Balance-of-Payments Constrained? Policies and Implications for Development and Growth

This paper examines the extent to which Pakistan's growth has been, or is likely to be, constrained by its balance of payments. Evidence presented suggests that Pakistan's maximum growth rate consistent with equilibrium on the basic balance is approximately 5% per annum. This is below the long-term target GDP growth rate of 7–8% per annum. This balance-of-payments constrained growth approach provides some important implications for Pakistan's development policy. Real exchange rate depreciations will not lead to an improvement in the current account. Pakistan must lift the constraints that impede higher growth in exports. In particular, it must shift its export structure towards more sophisticated products with a higher income elasticity of demand.     

中国农业走出去的基本特征、问题与建议

目的 通过分析中国农业走出去的基本情况,总结归纳当前中国农业走出去基本特征和进一步发展的主要问题,并根据主要农产品（农资）国内市场需求程度以及推动走出去的作用,分类给出针对性政策建议。方法 文章运用描述性统计和交叉分析方法,基于对外农业投资数据,结合中国农业走出去在投资区域、投资产业、投资主体和投资方式上的基本特征,分析限制中国农业走出去水平进一步提升的主要问题。结果 中国农业走出去的主要问题表现为：原料进口高度集中且不稳定,经贸摩擦频繁发生;农业走出去企业将强未强,投资产业链短且处于低端;产能转移产业大而不强,科技含量低;内外政策衔接不畅,部门间政策不协调等四方面。结论 因此,建议分类施策,针对直接消费型进口农产品应进一步开放市场,合理预测市场缺口,利用国内市场规模优势培育大型跨国企业;针对原料进口型农产品应推动内外市场产业链对接,加强政策试验,升级“三区”打造总部基地;针对产能转移型农产品应以科技创新为突破点,提高服务贸易的助推剂作用,推动产业阶梯转移促国内高质量发展。     

Effects of agricultural production fluctuations on the Chinese macroeconomy

Based on a macro-model framed in terms of China's agricultural, industrial, government and household sectors, this paper aims to identify the effects of agricultural production fluctuations on the Chinese macroeconomy over the period 1949–89. Using annual national time-series data, Granger-causality tests indicate that fluctuations in China's agricultural production have been a statistically significant cause of changes in other types of Chinese macroeconomic activity. Impulse response analysis shows that shocks in China's agricultural production were followed by analogous responses in national consumption, industrial output, investment, exports and income which peaked with a two-year lag and vanished after 6 years. Variance decomposition analysis indicates that changes in China's agricultural production were the most important determinant of changes in the level of national consumption and the second most important determinant of changes in the level of industrial production, national investment, exports and national income.     

The impact of urban expansion on agricultural land use intensity in China

China's urbanization has resulted in significant changes in both agricultural land and agricultural land use. However, there is limited understanding about the relationship between the two primary changes occurring to China's agricultural land – the urban expansion on agricultural land and agricultural land use intensity. The goal of this paper is to understand this relationship in China using panel econometric methods. Our results show that urban expansion is associated with a decline in agricultural land use intensity. The area of cultivated land per capita, a measurement about land scarcity, is negatively correlated with agricultural land use intensity. We also find that GDP in the industrial sector negatively affects agricultural land use intensity. GDP per capita and agricultural investments both positively contribute to the intensification of agricultural land use. Our results, together with the links between urbanization, agricultural land, and agricultural production imply that agricultural land expansion is highly likely with continued urban expansion and that pressures on the country's natural land resources will remain high in the future.     

Productivity in Indonesian agriculture: Impacts of domestic and international research

Total factor productivity growth contributed 38% of Indonesia's agricultural output growth from the mid-1970s to the mid-2000s. This study uses time series data analysed with an error correction mechanism to examine the contribution that Indonesian publicly funded agricultural research made to this outcome, allowing for other possible determinants of productivity growth, including international agricultural research, extension, government price policy and weather. The results imply a 27% real annual rate of return from a marginal increase in Indonesian agricultural research expenditure. Indonesia's public agricultural research explains virtually all of its agricultural total factor productivity growth between 1975 and 2006.     

Policy reform and farmers' wheat allocation in rural China: a case study*

Market‐oriented policy reforms often have important effects on farm‐level grain production and utilisation decisions in developing countries. China's grain farmers are of particular interest because of China's importance in world grain markets and because of China's recent major agricultural policy advances and retrenchments. An empirical evaluation of market liberalisation among farmers located in two provinces in China on farm‐level wheat consumption, market sales and on‐farm storage during 1994 is presented. The results indicate that policymakers should account for such changes in farm household behaviour in designing and assessing the consequence of market liberalisation programs for agricultural sectors in developing countries.     

工商资本下乡对地方农业产业发展的影响——基于政企关系的视角

目的 在加快建设农业强国的关键时期,深入剖析工商资本下乡投资带动农业产业发展的影响因素,对促进农业产业高质量发展具有重要意义。方法 文章利用江苏省工商企业下乡投资调研数据,采用有序选择模型（Oprobit）,实证分析江苏省工商资本下乡促进地方农业产业发展的影响因素。结果 （1）研究结论表明,良好的政企关系显著促进了工商资本下乡带动地方农业产业发展。在进行替换被解释变量、更换关键解释变量、考虑内生性问题进行稳健性检验后,上述结论依然成立。（2）异质性分析表明,对处于基础设施完备地区和项目负责人为非当地户籍的下乡投资企业,政企关系对工商资本下乡带动地方农业产业发展的促进作用更大,而对处于政策环境更好地区的下乡投资企业而言,政企关系的促进作用有所减弱。（3）进一步分析表明,行业关联正向调节了政企关系对工商资本下乡带动地方农业产业发展水平的促进作用。结论 应推进工商资本与村集体形成利益共同体,充分利用农业关联企业的带动作用以及完善乡村配套基础设施以提升工商资本下乡促进地方农业产业发展的效能。     

China and Taiwan access to the World Trade Organization: implications for U.S. agriculture and trade

This paper investigates the impact of China's and Taiwan's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) on U.S. and world agricultural trade by means of a 12-region, 14-sector Computable General Equilibrium model for world trade and production. The simulation results show that integrating China and Taiwan into the global trading system could induce more competition on labor-intensive Products and reduce their prices. It could drive up the demand for capital and skill-intensive manufactured goods, thus further improving industrial countries' terms of trade. The expansion of labor-intensive sectors in China could also induce contraction in agricultural exports from China and increase its net agricultural imports by as much as US$9 billion annually, causing food and agricultural exports from other regions to increase. Total U.S. food and agricultural exports could increase by about US$2.4 billion annually, with the non-grain crop sectors gaining the most. The biggest winner from China's WTO accession is China itself. WTO membership could bring a net welfare gain of about US$30 billion a year for China, a substantial benefit compared with the gains for the USA (US$8.5 billion).     

The Current State of the Russian Agricultural Sector

Russia's agriculture produces around 3.7 per cent of the country's GDP, employs 9.2 per cent of the national workforce and contributes around 6 per cent of the country's exports. The sector has shown remarkable resilience in the face of wider economic turbulence. Self‐sufficiency rates for the main agricultural commodities are relatively high. Agricultural exports have grown very significantly since 2000 especially for wheat and meslin (wheat and rye mixture). Meat production has been growing steadily, particularly in the poultry and pork sectors. Whilst the agri‐food sector has great potential to play an even more prominent role in Russia's economy, it suffers from relatively low productivity and an outdated technological base. The main drive for efficiency has come mainly from the relatively large‐scale agricultural firms, who generated more than half of the total value of agricultural output in 2016. Foreign policy instability, including economic sanctions, the devaluation of the national currency and declining economic growth have weakened the sector and caused an increase in the prices of imported goods and equipment. At the same time Russian products have replaced high value‐added imports and Russia's agricultural producers are expanding into new markets.     

基于融合发展业态的乡村产业潜力分析

目的 产业融合是新时期农村农业发展的载体,通过对乡村产业融合的路径探索,构建产业融合评价指标体系,以期对融合发展业态下的哈尔滨乡村产业发展提供合理的参考建议。方法 文章运用熵值法计算哈尔滨市乡村产业融合发展指数,分析其发展趋势;在此基础上,运用灰色关联度探究其系统指标对农民增收、农业增效的影响。结果 哈尔滨市乡村产业融合程度在逐渐加深,尤其在2014—2017年,其乡村产业融合发展处于快速增长期,而随着乡村振兴战略规划实施和农业供给侧改革的不断深化,乡村产业融合逐渐实现由量到质的转变;休闲农业产值、农业合作社、特色农业种植面积、科技进步贡献率、农业机械总动力等在提升哈尔滨农业整体效益上具有重要推动作用,其贡献率主要来自于农业多功能型拓展。结论 （1）哈尔滨市乡村产业融合发展趋势良好,且表现出极大的发展潜力,但从贡献率来看,加强农业产业链延伸是现阶段促进哈尔滨乡村产业融合发展的重要路径。（2）协调城乡发展关系,降低乡村产业生产成本,使农民真正从农业产业链中获益是哈尔滨乡村产业融合的关键。（3）哈尔滨乡村产业融合发展过程中,农业多功能型拓展发展相对较好,但仍处于初级阶段,有较大发展潜力。（4）哈尔滨市在农业产业价值提升上应结合精准扶贫、乡村振兴等政策要求,在有限资源的情况下有效提升农村产业融合效率。     

Integrated economic-hydrologic water modeling at the basin scale: the Maipo river basin

Increasing competition for water across sectors increases the importance of the river basin as the appropriate unit of analysis to address the challenges facing water resources management; and modeling at this scale can provide essential information for policy makers in their resource allocation decisions. This paper introduces an integrated economic‐hydrologic modeling framework that accounts for the interactions between water allocation, farmer input choice, agricultural productivity, non‐agricultural water demand, and resource degradation in order to estimate the social and economic gains from improvement in the allocation and efficiency of water use. The model is applied to the Maipo river basin in Chile. Economic benefits to water use are evaluated for different demand management instruments, including markets in tradable water rights, based on production and benefit functions with respect to water for the agricultural and urban‐industrial sectors.     

AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

In recent years much has been written about agricultural structure and the size of agricultural holdings. This article attempts to set the current debate in perspective and relate it to economic growth. Startirig with a largely riiral economy, it describes agriculture's contribirtion to econontic growth and the repercussions of this growth on the agricultural sector. The particular problems of agriculture in an industrial economy like the U.K. are then considered in relation to its agricultural structure.     

论农业产业结构调整的政策性金融服务体系

文章基于农业产业结构调整的角度对我国农村金融支持展开研究,通过回顾历史、分析现状总结我国农业产业结构历经5次结构性调整。我国农业产业历次结构性调整虽然取得较大改进及发展,但仍存在不少问题,其中农村金融服务体系存在的问题有:(1)正规金融机构不足、服务效率低下;(2)金融知识渗透性差;(3)抵押物问题;(4)非正规金融风险较大。发现农村政策性金融对产业结构调整的作用主要体现在:(1)农业产业的扶植和政策引导功能;(2)农村和农业的开发功能;(3)农村金融市场和信用体系的完善功能。提出建立健全我国农村政策性金融服务体系的主要措施有:(1)增强教育投入、增加信贷宣传;(2)加大中小额信贷支持力度,提高融资水平;(3)应用"互联网+"金融方式,推进金融服务体系多样化;(4)加大土地政策改革,解决农民抵押物难问题。     

Externalities in the agricultural export sector and economic growth: a developing country perspective

For years economists have ignored the diversity in agriculture and its potential to increase long run growth rates by enhancing a country's knowledge base. Non-traditional agriculture requires significant investments in the infrastructure and knowledge; and therefore, has the potential to increase long run growth rates. Policy makers in developing countries have tended to enact macroeconomic policies designed to enhance the manufacturing sector at the expense of the agricultural sector. A theoretical model is developed to explain the dynamics between two non-traditional export sectors and the long run economic growth of the country. The model illustrates that growth in highly perishable agricultural exports, not domestic production of manufactured goods, can potentially lead to higher long run growth rates. The model is applied to the fruit and flower industries in Colombia to bring forth an example with real world relevance.     

南宁名特优农产品产业的发展前景及对策研究

培育、发展、壮大包括名特优农产品产业在内的新型产业是优化农业产业结构、培育新的农业经济增长点、构建农业发展新业态新模式的重要选择。南宁名特优农产品产业发展已经取得明显成效:产业规模和效益不断扩大、产业政策体系日益健全、产业结构不断完善,在未来时期其产业地位将不断提升、产业消费市场持续扩大、资金和政策支持更有力、产业发展模式更加成熟和完善,呈现出更为广阔的发展前景和空间。推进南宁名特优农产品产业发展应重点从以下方面发力:发挥好政府宏观调和引导功能,增强名特优农产品产业发展的政策保障;优化名特优农产品产业发展与乡村振兴有效衔接机制;突出特色与挖掘潜力并重,扩大名特优农产品产业发展空间;创新融合发展模式,推进名特优农产品多元化发展。     

The trade and environment nexus in Mexican agriculture. A general equilibrium analysis

This paper analyzes linkages between growth, trade and the environment in Mexican agriculture with an empirical economy-wide model. The investigation considers trade liberalization, environmental policy reform, and their coordination. The analysis decomposes the change in pollution emission induced by changes in the sectoral composition of production, effects of technology on emission intensity, and aggregate Scale effects. Outward orientation alone induces a contraction of aggregate agricultural output, but promotes growth and pollution in some agricultural sectors. Overall, free trade does not induce wholesale specialization in dirty agricultural activities. Environmental taxes on pollution emitted in agricultural sectors have a moderate negative impact on agricultural output, except for the tax on water-borne toxic chemicals. More liberal trade combined with targeted effluent taxes can achieve significant environmental mitigation and efficiency gains, but with the implication of a contraction of most agricultural sectors.     

Sudan's agricultural sector diversity and policy reforms with reference to devaluation and food self‐sufficiency

Abstract

Sudan's agricultural sector is characterized by division into three structurally and institutionally distinct sub‐sectors. This paper discusses the likely impact of exchange rate reform on the structure of incentives, relative competitiveness and food self‐sufficiency, both intersectorally and intrasectorally. Employing domestic resource cost analysis and a simple framework for calculating expected net revenue for staple foodgrain, results indicate that policy reforms, particularly devaluation, appear to have affected the various sub‐sectors differently, and overall devaluation has met inadequately the challenge of sustaining a viable agriculture. The pursuit of food self‐sufficiency strategy may be explained in terms of expected net revenues and risk aversion; both are largely related to policy reforms and efficiency of the marketing system.     

中国新疆与哈萨克斯坦农产品贸易现状及潜力评价基于贸易引力模型的实证研究

目的 文章利用2004—2017年乌鲁木齐海关数据,研究中国新疆与哈萨克斯坦农产品贸易的现状、互补性及影响因素,挖掘中国新疆与哈萨克斯坦农产品贸易潜力,为进一步拓展双方农产品贸易提出建议。方法 采用产业内贸易指数和引力模型进行实证分析。结果 中国新疆与哈萨克斯坦农产品贸易规模总体处于增长态势,但贸易联系紧密度不高;中国新疆以出口水果、蔬菜等劳动密集型农产品为主,哈萨克斯坦主要出口畜产品、棉麻丝等资源密集型农产品;农产品贸易整体属于产业内贸易,在九大类细分农产品领域存在各自竞争优势,双方贸易需求基本没有重叠,互补性较强;双方经济总量、人口规模、农产品贸易联系紧密程度、空间距离等是影响农产品双边贸易的重要因素。结论 中国新疆与哈萨克斯坦农产品贸易潜力总体呈现增长趋势,尤其在“一带一路”倡议提出后,双方贸易潜力提升幅度明显。