Pricing issues in industrial marketing

Developing an effective pricing strategy today is becoming a difficult task for industrial marketing managers. The failure of firms to totally understand the implications of their pricing decisions often leads to missed opportunities and eventually lowers profits. Price setting and implementation are multidimensional processes affecting customers, products, cost recovery efforts, produce margin levels, customer retention, market share, and domestic and international sales. This issue of Industrial Marketing Management provides some insights into the complexities of this process for managers by examining pricing on several levels, including the organizational influences on industrial pricing, the factors affecting international pricing, the importance of pricing in controlling supply chain costs, the influence of information on pricing decisions, the degree to which the Internet and reverse auctions are affecting customer relationships with their suppliers, and the importance of developing a strategic pricing plan.     

Violations of rational choice principles in pricing decisions

Research on behavioral and psychological aspects of pricing is concerned with violations of rationality. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the current literature by highlighting those studies that have specific relevance for industrial pricing. I hereby examine two different perspectives. First, by taking the customer perspective, I analyze under which circumstances customer purchase decisions violate basic principles of rational choice. Second, by taking the perspective of managers, I examine which biases affect the process of price setting within firms. This overview meaningfully advances industrial pricing theory and practice: It allows both customers and managers to guard themselves against widely diffused traps in decision making. It also enables managers to favorably influence customer perceptions of value and price without actually changing the price. Finally, by pulling together a number of different research areas into a more parsimonious framework and a tighter narrative, this framework offers systematic directions for future research.     

Erratic strategic decisions: when and why managers are inconsistent in strategic decision making

While decision makers in organizations frequently make good decisions rooted in stable and consistent preferences, such consistency in outcomes is not always the case. In this study, we adopt a psychological perspective of judgment to investigate managers' erratic strategic decisions, which we define as a manager's inconsistent judgments that can shape the direction of the firm. In a study of 2,048 decisions made by 64 CEOs of technology firms, we examine how both metacognitive experience and perceptions of the external environment (hostility and dynamism) could affect the extent to which managers make erratic strategic decisions. The results indicate that managers with greater metacognitive experience make less erratic strategic decisions. The results also indicate that in hostile environments managers make more erratic strategic decisions. But contrary to our expectations, in dynamic environments managers make less erratic strategic decisions. Similarly, hostility and dynamism interact in their effect on erratic strategic decisions in that the positive relationship between environmental hostility and erratic strategic decisions will be less positive for managers experiencing high environmental dynamism than those experiencing low environmental dynamism. These results have important implications for strategic decision‐making research. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The strategic choice of operator skills in CNC installations

The authors test a strategic choice model to further define the factors managers respond to when making skill level decisions for plants using CNC equipment. The results indicate that managers respond to the level of uncertainty in both the internal and external environments as well as the level of perceived discretion management has in regards to the workforce.     

Corporate-level influences on internal capital allocation: The role of financial analyst performance projections

Research contends that internal capital should be allocated in proportion to divisional performance, but scholars are often puzzled to find that managers do not adhere to this winner-picking approach. We argue this is because scholarship has not incorporated corporate-level factors that influence how corporate managers structure holistic capital allocation strategies. In this study, we build on the behavioral theory of the firm to focus on analyst performance projections for multidivisional corporations and how they inform corporate managers' allocation strategies. Specifically, we theorize corporate managers deviate from the winner-picking allocation approach owing to search-related behaviors stemming from projected performance below or above expectations. We further theorize about conditions that offer corporate managers opportunities to deviate from winner-picking, focusing particularly on multidivisional relatedness and asset durability.     

Brand or Variety Choices and Periodic Sales as Substitute Instruments for Monopoly Price Discrimination

We study the puzzle that sellers often employ diverse strategies in terms of carrying multiple brands and holding periodic sales. These two selling tools can be substitute instruments to induce consumer self selection and implement price discrimination. We analyze the factors that affect a seller’s choice between the two pricing instruments and show how different combinations of the two instruments can be optimal under alternative market conditions. A seller may, surprisingly, increase her total number of offers when it becomes more costly to carry brands or hold sales if there are decreasing marginal costs of the alternative selling tool.     

Pricing superheroes: How a confident sales team can influence firm performance

Despite strong evidence of substantial impact on the bottom line, most companies counter-intuitively neglect the pricing function — as do most scholars. Although pricing is gaining in popularity, only a few articles published in major marketing journals focus on it, and scholars have long asked how organizational and behavioral characteristics of firms affect the link between pricing practices and firm performance. To address these practical and theoretical deficits, we surveyed 507 professionals involved in account and sales management at business-to-business (B2B) firms from around the world to measure the influence of five organizational factors on sales collective confidence associated with pricing and relative firm performance. Results demonstrate that four of the five factors (pricing capabilities, delegation of pricing authority, incentive and goal systems, and knowledge before negotiation) positively and significantly influence sales collective confidence associated with pricing. In turn, we find collective confidence in the sales force to be significantly and positively related to relative firm performance, suggesting that firms that are able to design organizations and allocate resources in a way that maximizes pricing confidence can achieve superior financial outcomes. In aggregate, these organizational factors promote competitive advantage and comparative firm performance.     

Launching new product features: a multiple case examination

The present study investigates the strategies that eight companies employed in launching new product features in a variety of markets. A literature review shows that launching new product features is an under‐researched area. This lack of attention may be detrimental to companies, as in many mature markets—such as those for durable consumer goods like television sets, coffee machines or videocassette recorders—the launch of new product features is perhaps the single most important product development activity that companies employ. We sought to address three research questions, namely what are the current strategies used by managers for launching new product features, how do these strategies differ, and what are the opportunities and pitfalls of these strategies? A multiple case study involving 38 managers from different functional backgrounds was used, thereby investigating the feature introductions of eight companies in‐depth. The study first identifies six feature launch decisions: the feature's position in the feature life cycle, the core technology concerned, the focus on feature or product, the differentiation practices used by the firm, feature diffusion in the product line, and the make‐or‐buy decision. Based on these decisions, four distinct feature launch strategies were distinguished: dictatorship, pioneering, establishing, and following. Dictatorship companies launch feature innovations that are based on fundamentally new technologies. Pioneers are not as powerful as dictators and focus on features that are based on applied and proven rather than on fundamentally new technologies. Establishes copy and improve successful features and launch them quickly and broadly as a standard in mass markets. Followers launch standard features that already existed in the mass market. These four strategies describe how the firms in our sample launched new features in the marketplace. As such, they describe when and where in the product line what feature was introduced. Such a typology of feature launch strategies helps to proactively understand the strategies firms have for launching new product features. The article discusses for each strategy the relevant feature launch decisions, possible applications, and opportunities and pitfalls. We conclude with the implications of our study for research and managerial practice.     

Managing service quality in high customer contact B2B services across domestic and international markets

This research aims to examine the nature of the moderating influence of empowerment on the effect of service training and internal marketing on service quality in a high customer contact B2B setting, and to investigate the differential effects of internal marketing, service training, and empowerment on service quality across domestic and international operations. Data from 880 customer-contact employees show several direct and interaction effects. Our analysis shows that the three focal variables, internal marketing, service training and empowerment positively relate to service quality. Our results support a positive moderating influence of empowerment on the relationship between internal marketing and service quality, and between service training and service quality. Finally, our hypotheses for the moderating influence of type of service operations (domestic/international) on the effect of internal marketing and service training on service quality were also supported. Our results suggest that offering service employees the skills, ability and power to do their job is essential in both domestic and international operations, and also helps maximize the effects of a firm's internal marketing efforts and service training. Overall, the findings inform managers as to how their employee focused strategies for service quality can be managed effectively across domestic and international markets.     

Organizational responses to environmental demands: opening the black box

This article combines new and old institutionalism to explain differences in organizational strategies. We propose that differences in the influence of corporate departments lead their facilities to prioritize different external pressures and thus adopt different management practices. Specifically, we argue that external constituents—including customers, regulators, legislators, local communities, and environmental activist organizations—who interact with influential corporate departments are more likely to affect facility managers' decisions. As a result, managers of facilities that are subjected to comparable institutional pressures adopt distinct sets of management practices that appease different external constituents. We test our framework in the context of the adoption of environmental management practices using an original survey and archival data obtained for nearly 500 facilities. We find support for these hypotheses. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A path to value creation for foreign entrepreneurs

Research summary : Firms founded by foreign entrepreneurs constitute an influential and growing part of the world economy. Yet, the existing research has given little consideration to the strategies of foreign entrepreneurs beyond their decisions to start a firm. In this article, we address this gap by examining how foreign entrepreneurs may bring value to their firms as firm managers. We argue that foreign owner‐managers may benefit their firms by having access to home‐country resources. We demonstrate that, compared to hired local managers, foreign owner‐managers reduce firms' operating costs by disproportionately hiring home‐country labor when this labor is more cost‐efficient. This effect is larger for labor‐intensive industries and for entrepreneurs from less wealthy countries. Managerial summary : Foreign entrepreneurs represent an important part of the world economy. Yet, we know little of how foreign entrepreneurs manage their firms. In this article, we examine whether foreign entrepreneurs and domestic managers hire different employees. We find that when foreign entrepreneurs manage their firms personally, they hire a larger number of foreign workers, and such workers are cheaper and more productive than the local labor. Conversely, domestic managers tend to hire local employees, despite their higher relative wages. Foreign owner‐managers are particularly valuable in labor‐intensive industries and when their home‐country labor is inexpensive. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Behavioral issues in price setting in business-to-business marketing: A framework for analysis

Business-to-business pricing research has often focused on developing rational and normative frameworks and models for pricing issues, strategies and tactics. However, there has been less attention given to behavioral models that help us understand the realities of pricing and how managers actually set prices. Specifically, there has been less attention given to the various individual and group influences on the price setting process. We apply insights from a steadily increasing body of literature on behavioral decision making to identify some relevant behavioral issues that may affect managerial price setting processes in business-to-business contexts. We conclude with some implications for theory building and practice and an agenda for future research.     

Industrial Pricing Strategies in Singapore and the U.S.: Same or Different?

It is generally believed that business-to-business marketing strategies are more uniform worldwide than those in consumer markets, because the buying firms focus more on issues such as product performance and profits. If this is so, a strategy model validated in one industrial market should apply reasonably well in another. This study compares pricing strategies of industrial firms in two market economies, the U.S. and Singapore. A pricing strategy model validated in the U.S. was tested in Singapore to determine whether internal and external conditions incorporated in the model could adequately explain differences in strategy choices between the markets.     

Industrial New Product Launch Strategies and Product Development Performance

Just as reporters must answer a few fundamental questions in every story they write, decision-makers in the new product development (NPD) process must address five key issues: what to launch, where to launch, when to launch, why to launch, and how to launch. These decisions involve significant commitments of time, money, and resources. They also go a long way toward determining the success or failure of any new product. Deeper insight into the tradeoffs these decisions involve may help to increase the likelihood of success for product launch efforts. Erik Jan Hultink, Abbie Griffin, Susan Hart, and Henry Robben present the results of a study that examines the interplay between these product launch decisions and NPD performance. Noting that previous launch studies focus primarily on the tactical decisions (that is, how to launch) rather than on the strategic decisions (what, where, when, and why to launch), they explore not only which decisions are important to success, but also the associations between the two sets of decisions. Because the strategic launch decisions made early in the NPD process affect the tactical decisions made later in the process, their study emphasizes the importance of launch consistency—that is, the alignment of the strategic and tactical decisions made throughout the process. The survey respondents—managers from marketing, product development, or general management in U.K. firms—provided information about 221 industrial new products launched during the previous five years. The responses identify associations between various sets of strategic and tactical decisions. That is, the responses suggest that the strategic decisions managers make regarding product innovativeness, market targeting, the number of competitors, and whether the product is marketing- or technology-driven are associated with subsequent tactical decisions regarding branding, distribution expenditure and intensity, and pricing. The study also suggests that different sets of launch decisions have differing effects on performance of industrial new products. In this study, the greatest success was enjoyed by a small group of respondents categorized as Niche Innovators. Their launch strategy involves a niche focus, targeting innovative products into markets with few competitors. Tactical decisions made by this group include exclusive distribution, a skimming pricing strategy, and a broad product assortment.     

Managerial perceptions of global pioneering advantage: Theoretical framework and empirical evidence in the U.S. and Korea

Managers form mental models of their business environment, and make strategic decisions based on these perceptions of reality. We study managerial perceptions of the competitive advantage gained by a pioneering firm. We expect that managers will make pioneering entry decisions based on their perceptions of pioneering advantages. Due to cross-national cultural and business environment differences, managers from different countries will employ different mental models and thus perceive the relative advantage of pioneering differently.Drawing from the literature on cultural influence on decision-making, we build a theoretical framework of perceived pioneering advantage in different cultural environments. From this framework, and from cultural differences that exist between the United States and South Korea, we derive hypotheses regarding expected cross-cultural perceptual differences. We test these hypotheses using samples of senior product managers from both countries. We find that some, but not all, of the principles of pioneering advantage empirically verified in North America are generalizable to the culturally-different South Korean business environment.     

Towards value-based pricing—An integrative framework for decision making

Despite a recent surge of interest, the subject of pricing in general and value-based pricing in particular has received little academic investigation. Yet, pricing has a huge impact on financial results, both in absolute terms and relative to other instruments of the marketing mix. The objective of this paper is to present a comprehensive framework for pricing decisions which considers all relevant dimensions and elements for profitable and sustainable pricing decisions. The theoretical framework is useful for guiding new product pricing decisions as well as for implementing price-repositioning strategies for existing products. The practical application of this framework is illustrated by a case study involving the pricing decision for a major product launch at a global chemical company.     

网络型厂商公司治理结构与市场行为机制的理论探析——基于资本结构与定价行为的视角

本文假设在不能有效地改变市场结构和维持价格管制策略的前提下,深入地分析了网络型厂商内部的结构和特征,以及执行管制价格同样会造成社会福利损失的问题。得出通过改变以资本结构为核心的公司治理机制,打通资本市场和产品市场之间的利益流,建立起网络型厂商内部和资本市场上的利益制衡机制,进而制约经理层以价格决策为核心的市场行为,达到弱化网络型厂商市场势力和垄断产品价格柔性下调的目的,运用这种微观治理的方法,将外部不可能实现的约束和制衡引入到网络型厂商内部,从而使全社会的资源和利益配置实现帕累托改进。     

Launch Strategy, Launch Tactics, and Demand Outcomes

In a typical new product development process, the role of the launch stage is to maximize the chances of profitably achieving acceptance in the target market. A launch plan can include strategic decisions (such as relative innovativeness, mass versus niche targeting, and lead versus follow) as well as tactical decisions (including the types of communication and distribution activities to emphasize, introductory pricing, branding, and when to announce new items and delete old ones). Unfortunately, the existing literature offers limited decision-making guidance to managers on how to prioritize and integrate the various strategic and tactical options. This article presents a conceptual framework that suggests that the strategic and tactical challenges posed in various product launch situations depend in large measure on the specific type of buying behavior to be influenced. Depending on the degree of product innovativeness, managers may establish one of three types of desired demand outcomes: (1) trial and repurchase, (2) customer migration, or (3) innovation adoption and diffusion. The degree to which the desired demand outcome is realized is shown to be dependent on buyers' perceptions of the new product's relative advantage and of its compatibility with buyers' values and experiences. Perceptions of the product on these two characteristics are initially influenced by the launch strategy. Given an understanding of these perceptions, managers can then select launch tactics designed to clarify or leverage relative advantages or to demonstrate or enhance compatibility to the target market. The framework also demonstrates how the linkages among launch strategy, launch tactics, and the demand outcomes are impacted by the product-market environment, the technological dynamics of the industry, and the firm's resources and capabilities. The author argues that, by examining a given launch situation in the context of this framework, managers will be able to think more systematically about the strategy and tactics required for market acceptance.     

The impact of post-merger integration on the customer–supplier relationship

While the impact of mergers and acquisitions (M&A) on internal stakeholders has generated considerable empirical study, comparatively little academic attention has been paid as to how external stakeholders such as customers are affected by, and respond to, M&A activity. This study adopts case-study methodology to illuminate how the customer–supplier relationship is affected by post-merger integration processes in the business-to-business context, with the aim of increasing our understanding of why customers respond to M&A in the ways that they do. The findings highlight the importance of a set of critical customer relationship variables through which post-M&A integration actions can influence customers' perceptions of the merged organisation and, ultimately, their purchase decisions. We also identify a set of specific individual integration actions that appear to trigger changes in the critical customer relationship variables. Together, the findings contribute to our understanding of the precise mechanisms through which M&A can affect customers' purchase decisions and the combining firms' market-related performance. More broadly, consistent with the stakeholder perspective, they reinforce the need to take account of external as well as internal stakeholders when considering the drivers of M&A outcome. Implications are discussed for future research as well as for B2B service industry executives involved in M&A.     

New Product Portfolio Management Decisions: Antecedents and Consequences

This research employs organizational information processing theory to propose and examine the antecedents and consequences of new product portfolio management (NPPM) decisions. Understanding NPPM decisions is an important research area because these decisions affect firm profitability but are difficult to make because of limited reliable information. Recent survey results of Product Development and Management Association members and other NPPM professionals suggest nearly half of initial new product ideas are chosen to advance through the new product development (NPD) pipeline via informal processes. Thus, managers wield considerable influence in NPPM. Yet only limited research quantitatively examines how NPPM decisions impact performance and the role of manager dispositions. Using as the research context a marketing simulation exercise conducted with mid‐level managers, this research reveals important insights into the impact of the three NPPM dimensions—value maximization, balance, and strategic fit—on NPD and firm performance. The analysis suggests a critical role for the NPPM dimension of balance as it is the single dimension impacting performance. However, value maximization is relevant as a criterion for competing because, overall, managers see this dimension as important. At the same time, managers are cautioned in their use of strategic fit as it appears this dimension may constrain innovative choices. Furthermore, three manager dispositions proposed from organizational information processing theory—directive leadership style, need for cognition, and risk perceptions—all influence NPPM dimensions. Managers are recommended to consider the personality traits of managers involved in NPPM decisions to ensure thorough consideration of all dimensions.