Word-of-mouth communications in marketing: a meta-analytic review of the antecedents and moderators

Although word-of-mouth (WOM) activity has been studied as an outcome variable of other constructs such as satisfaction, less attention has been given to the antecedents and moderators of WOM when considering WOM as a central construct. Hence, we propose a model of WOM antecedents and moderators using a meta-analytic review. The results show that all antecedents have significant effects on WOM activity, with customer commitment showing the strongest effect. The following hypotheses are also supported: (1) WOM valence is a significant moderator, (2) cross-sectional studies show a stronger influence of satisfaction and loyalty on WOM activity than longitudinal studies, and (3) studies of WOM behavior show a weaker link between loyalty and WOM activity than studies of WOM intentions. In addition, we show that satisfaction has a stronger relationship with positive WOM than loyalty, whereas (dis)loyalty has a stronger relationship with negative WOM than does (dis)satisfaction. We discuss this finding based on the different natures of positive and negative WOM. This article is based on the first author’s dissertation.     

The substitution strategy dilemma: substitute selection versus substitute effectiveness

Many brands build market share by acting as a substitute when competitive brands become undesirable or difficult to obtain. Notably, prior research offers competing strategic recommendations for marketers hoping to encourage consumers to engage in substitution. Past research examining substitute selection—measuring consumers’ beliefs about how well one product will substitute for another—suggests that marketers should offer replacements that are similar to the initially preferred product. In contrast, research examining substitute effectiveness—the consequences of substitution—suggests that differentiated brands will enjoy more long-term success. We integrate these two streams of research, explaining why there is a mismatch between substitute selection and substitute effectiveness, replicating and showing boundary conditions for the effects, and testing a managerial intervention that encourages consumers to choose more dissimilar (and more effective) substitutes.     

Children's responses to TV advertising: Product versus premium orientation

Attention has focused on a call for a ban on premium offers in children's television ads. Key considerations for proposing a ban was reflected in the FTC's statements regarding the confusion and difficulties of choice when the injection of a premium becomes the selling point rather than product merit. The sparsity of previous research in this area led to this exploration of television advertising viewing of different commercial content as it affects the “consumer learning process” of a child. This basically involves a continuum of learning, from the simplest recall of specific marketing-oriented elements such as identification of product or sponsor to the more complex level of understanding the use or value of a particular product or service. Trends noted in this study give additional insight to the marketing practitioner concerning the types of elements a child can assimilate and to the child's understanding of the message.     

Claim recall and irritation in television commercials: An advertising effectiveness study

The purpose of this research was to measure the relationship between advertising effectiveness and the levels of irritation possessed by the advertisements. A set of television commercials was first assigned to an empirically-derived irritation continuum. Subjects were exposed to the commercials and claim-recall measures were taken immediately after exposure and 48 hours later. Results indicate that both highly irritating and relatively pleasant advertising messages generated higher claim recall than did advertising which was neutral in this dimension. Acknowledgements: The author would like to thank Professor Edwin C. Hackleman for his guidance and assistance in the preparation of this paper.     

The effectiveness of celebrity endorsements: a meta-analysis

Celebrities frequently endorse products, brands, political candidates, or health campaigns. We investigated the effectiveness of such endorsements by meta-analyzing 46 studies published until April 2016 involving 10,357 participants. Applying multilevel meta-analysis, we analyzed celebrity endorsements in the context of for-profit and non-profit marketing. Findings revealed strong positive and negative effects when theoretically relevant moderators were included in the analysis. The most positive attitudinal effect appeared for male actors who match well with an implicitly endorsed object (d = .90). The most negative effect was found for female models not matching well with an explicitly endorsed object (d = ?.96). Furthermore, celebrity endorsements performed worse compared to endorsements of quality seals, awards, or endorser brands. No publication bias was detected. The study has theoretical and practical implications, and provides an agenda for future research.     

Consumer ethnocentrism: A test of antecedents and moderators

This article identifies theoretical antecedents of consumer ethnocentricity and the effect ethnocentricity has on evaluations toward importing products. Hypotheses pertaining to the relationship between the identified antecedents and consumer ethnocentricity are developed based on an extensive review of the ethnocentrism and country-of-origin literatures. Also identified are factors moderating the effect of ethnocentric tendencies on consumers’ attitudes toward importing products. The hypotheses are subjected to an empirical test using data collected in Korea. He has published inJournal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Marketing Science, Management Science, and elsewhere. He has published inJournal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, and elsewhere. He received his Ph.D. in marketing from the University of South Carolina.     

The portrayal of women in advertising: An overlooked area of societal marketing

The changing life styles of the American woman necessitate attention from marketing practitioners and academicians. The scope of this article is restricted to an examination of the portrayal of women in advertisements. Following a review of complaints of women in advertising and a look at selected research studies, the article deduces that the phenomena of sex roles in advertising has been inadequately investigated. Given this determination, the authors present a step-by-step framework for research on the portrayal of the sexes in promotion.     

Cluster analysis versus Q-type factor analysis as a disaggregation method in hybrid conjoint modeling: An empirical investigation

The author compares the predictive performance of cluster analysis and Q-type factor analysis as disaggregation methods in hybrid conjoint modeling. The results indicate that cluster- and Q-type-factor-based models perform about equally well in predictive validity terms. The paper, however, suggests the need for more empirical research.     

Standardization versus customization in international marketing: An investigation using bridging conjoint analysis

We present and illustrate a methodology by which researchers can assess the relative importance and test the significance of various marketing-related factors as they influence the degree of standardization/customization of international marketing strategy. The standardization decision is viewed as a continuum with complete standardization and complete customization as the two extremes. Specific hypotheses related to the impact of marketing mix variables on the degree of standardization are formulated. These hypotheses are empirically investigated through a survey of international marketing managers. This investigation is carried out using conjoint analysis. Bridging methodology is introduced in order to accommodate the large number of variables in the study. The analysis is conducted at the individual level, at the group level, and at the aggregate level. Finally, we discuss the methodological and managerial implications of the findings and potential areas of future research. His previous research has appeared in theInternational Marketing Review and theJournal of Euromarketing. He is also the president of the Academy of Marketing Science, a distinguished fellow of the academy and fellow of the Decision Sciences Institute. He has published 60 articles in major refereed journals including theJournal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Consumer Research, Marketing Science, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Retailing, Journal of Health Care Marketing, as well as leading journals in statistics, management science, and psychology. In addition, he has also published numerous refereed articles in the proceedings of major national and international conferences. He is the winner of numerous awards and honors for research, teaching, and service to the profession.     

论中国元素在商业广告中的应用

随着中国的崛起和全球地位的提升,世界经济离不开持续增长的中国经济,世界文明也离不开中国文化。在广告全球化的浪潮下,品牌如何更好地在中国市场发展,中国品牌如何更好地立足世界,广告如何更好地与消费者进行沟通并产生共鸣,孕育中国传统文化精神的"中国元素"成为广告公司和广告人在商业广告运用中不竭源泉。     

Low price signal default: an empirical investigation of its consequences

Low-price guarantees (LPG) signal the market position of a seller’s offer price and promise to compensate consumers in case that information is erroneous. In this research, we demonstrate that when retailers default on the information provided by an LPG, consumer perceptions of the retailer suffer, but the extent of the damage depends on the conditions associated with the default. On the basis of attribution theory, we posit that consumers may attribute default to the retailer’s opportunism but emphasize this attribution differently in various default conditions. Furthermore, we show that the restoration of consumer perceptions after a refund depends on consumers’ focus in terms of the signal itself. If they consider the protective, compensatory function of a low price signal, their post-refund outcomes are more favorable; when they focus on the informational function, these outcomes are less favorable. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings.

Cross-cultural research in advertising: An assessment of methodologies

The volume of scholarly work in cross-cultural advertising has been increasing in recent years. This study examines empirical studies in this area from a methodological perspective. Cross-cultural research designs should include many critical facets that do not surface in studies involving single cultures. These facets are discussed within the context of cross-cultural advertising literature. It is apparent from this review that a sharper focus on cross-cultural research tools and considerations can strengthen studies of advertising, lead to more robust results, and increase validity and reliability. Both students and practitioners need meaningful and generalizable findings that will emerge only when strict methodological considerations are adhered to. His articles have appeared in theJournal of Marketing, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, and others. His areas of interest include global new product development, entrepreneurship, and exporting.     

Sellers and buyers on the boundary: Potential moderators of role stress-job outcome relationships

Despite intense research interest in the role stress phenomenon in marketing over the last decade, there have been few attempts to explain the sometimes discrepant findings. This study investigated the influence of three potential moderators (education, job tenure, and work group cohesion) on role stress-job outcome relationships. Hypotheses were developed and tested in two work contexts of interest to marketers: industrial selling and purchasing. Findings point to some interesting moderating effects in the two samples. Work group cohesion reduced the dysfunctional effect of role stress on organizational commitment among industrial buyers. However, a more cohesive sales group experienced stronger dysfunctional effects from role stress on organizational commitment. Level of education buffered the role stress-organizational commitment link but only among industrial sales representatives. Managerial and research implications are also discussed. His research interests are in the areas of job satisfaction, performance, and motivation issues in personal selling and organizational buying. Michaels’ research has appeared in theJournal of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Business Research, andIndustrial Marketing Management. She received her M.B.A. degree in marketing from Boston University. Dixon’s research has appeared in theJournal of Consumer Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior and AMA’sEnhancing Knowledge Development in Marketing. She is a member of the Academy of Marketing Science, the American Marketing Association, and the Association for Consumer Research. Her current research interests include personal selling, sales management, and services marketing.     

Decision-making time in organizational buying behavior: An investigation of its antecedents

This study reports an empirical investigation focusing on the length of time firms take in making major purchase decisions (DMT) and examines antecedents such as buyclass, firm size, decision-making unit (DMU) size, information sources, and size of the consideration set. Data were provided by a national sample of organizations involved in the purchase of telecommunications systems. Findings suggest that firm size, buyclass, DMU size, information sources, and size of consideration set all significantly affect DMT. Antecedent relationships among the independent variables were also largely as expected. This study provides a starting point for a fertile area of research with important implications for organizational buyers and sellers as well as researchers. She holds a B.S. in Marketing and an MBA from the University of California at Berkeley and a Ph.D. in Marketing from Northwestern University. Her research interests are in the areas of technology diffusion and management as well as consumer behavior, advertising, and macromarketing. She has published in theJournal of Consumer Research, Public Opinion Quarterly, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Macromarketing, European Journal of Marketing, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Telematics and Informatics, andJournal of Economic Psychology. She is a member of the Editorial Policy Board of the Journal of Macromarketing and President of the International Society for Marketing and Development. She received her Ph.D. from the University of Nebraska. Dr. Johnson’s research interests focus on interorganizational relationships in marketing contexts, such as distribution channels or business-to-business marketing with emphasis on cross-culture interorganizational marketing relationships. Dr. Johnson’s research has appeared in theJournal of Marketing, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Business Research, andCurrent Issues and Research in Advertising, among other journals and conference proceedings. She has also presented her work at a variety of domestic and international conferences. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. His research interests are in the areas of pricing, consumer behavior, and marketing research. He is coauthor ofConsumer Behavior: Concepts and Applications, currently in its fourth edition, and his research has been published inDecision Sciences, Journal of Marketing Research, Journal of Business Research, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Journal of Macromarketing, Journal of Retailing, Journalism Quarterly, and other leading journals and publications of professional societies. He holds degrees in engineering and management from India and a Ph.D. in marketing from Northwestern University. Dr. Dholakia’s research deals with technology, innovation, market processes, globalization, and consumer culture. Dr. Dholakia has published over 70 papers in professional journals and proceedings in management, marketing, and technology. Among his books areEssentials of New Product Management (coauthored, Prentice-Hall, 1987).     

"入世"后中国广告的发展思路

中国加入WTO之后，跨国广告公司加剧了在华广告竞争。中国广告要在困境中谋求发展，必须进行全面、彻底地国际化改革，才能在竞争中占据主动地位。     

A note on the effectiveness of written versus aural two-sided messages in attitude change

This research sought to determine the difference between the persuasive power of a written two-sided message and an aural two-sided message. Attitudes toward picture phone shopping were measured before and after a persuasive two-sided message about picture phone shopping was given to two student groups. One group was given the message to read while the other listened to the message on tape. The nonparamentic Mann-Whitney U test was used to determine the significance of the difference between the attitude change produced by the written message versus the aural message. The effectiveness of the aural medium was superior to that of the written medium.     

Implementing a customer relationship strategy: The asymmetric impact of poor versus excellent execution

The benefits of developing customer relationships are well established. However, a well-intentioned relationship marketing strategy may fail because of poor implementation. In this study, the authors look at the effects of implementing a customer relationship strategy. Specifically, they examine the implementation of a personal-banker strategy as a means to developing customer relationships in the retail banking industry. The authors show that an “excellent” personal banker can increase overall customer satisfaction and loyalty compared to customers who do not have a personal banker. However, a poorly performing personal banker can result in lower overall customer satisfaction and loyalty than if no personal banker had been available. Moreover, the effects seem to be asymmetric, with the negative effects of a poor relationship strategy exceeding the positive benefits ofan “excellent” strategy. Mark R. Colgate is a senior lecturer in services marketing at the School of Business and Economics, University of Auckland, New Zealand. His research focuses on customer inertia, relationship marketing, and the interface between information technology and marketing. His research has been published in theEuropean Journal of Marketing, theInternational Journal of Service Industry Management, andThe Service Industries Journal and other services journals. Peter J. Danaher is a professor in the Department of Marketing Department at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. He has a Ph.D. in statistics from Florida State University and an M.S. in statistics from Purdue. His primary research interests are media exposure distributions, advertising effectiveness, customer satisfaction measurement, forecasting and sample surveys, resulting in many publications in journals such as theJournal of Marketing Research, theJournal of Advertising Research, theJournal of the American Statistical Association, theJournal of Retailing, theJournal of Business and Economic Statistics, and theAmerican Statistician. He has consulted extensively with Telecom, Optus Communications, Unilever, ACNielsen, and other market research companies.