Analysis of regional carbon allocation and carbon trading based on net primary productivity in China

Ecological balance and carbon sink economies have gained increased attention for tackling global warming. Based on an improved Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach model, this study demonstrated regional Net Primary Productivity (NPP) and analyzed regional carbon overdraft situations in China during 2005–2015. Regional carbon allowances were allocated according to carrying capacity of carbon sequestration and China's carbon intensity reduction goals in “13th Five-year plan”. Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) technology with panel data was further employed to estimate potential benefits resulting from carbon trading and a carbon sink economy. Regional NPP decreased from south to north and from coast to inland, while regions with severe carbon overdrafts were gathered in North and East China. In order to maintain a regional carbon balance with lower abatement costs, regional cooperation of emission reduction within either North or East China is proposed in this study. It is concluded that the majority of provinces and cities in Eastern China and some provinces in the west would be the major purchasers of carbon credits under a national carbon emissions trading (CET) market. Following the introduction of emissions offset mechanisms, Yunnan, Sichuan, and Heilongjiang would be the major providers of carbon sinks in China.     

Accounting and determinants analysis of China's provincial total factor productivity considering carbon emissions

One of the most undesirable output of China's rapid economic growth has been increasing carbon emissions. This study measures and analyzes the impact of carbon emissions on China's regional total factor productivity from 2000 to 2017. Using global Malmquist-Luenberger productivity indexes, we re-estimate the provincial total factor productivity taking carbon emission into account, comparing different assumptions of returns to scale and considering the rank reverse issue. The differences of technical progress and efficiency change across Chinese regional economies are also investigated and we found that the former was the primary contributor to improved Chinese provincial productivity performance. In addition, we analyze the influencing factors of productivity based on provincial panel data. Our results indicate that innovation capacity, energy and employment structure had significant impact on the provincial productivities while urbanization had a negative impact. A more sustainable development can be expected by expanding regional investment in R&D, adjusting and optimizing structures of regional industries and energies.     

国外碳定价机制经验对中国实现双碳目标的启示

当前碳排放管理工作处于发展初期，碳定价机制运行效果尚不明显。通过分析全球碳定价机制运行情况，对比发现中国碳定价机制存在价格低、覆盖范围窄、配套政策不完善等问题。最后借鉴发达国家经验，从提高碳价、增加覆盖范围、完善配套措施等方面提出中国碳定价机制发展的政策建议。     

The impacts of market power on power grid efficiency: Evidence from China

Since 1980s, China has experienced a series of reforms to support the development of electricity industry, and the latest one is in 2015. The essence of this new reform is to improve efficiency and lower energy cost. However, China's electricity market has its particularity. The “provinces as entities” is the main regulation frame in China's electricity sector. The operation of the electricity industry can be seen as a game result and interest compromise between the local government and grid companies, and this “win-win exchange” regulation failure leads to grid market power. The profit mode of the grid enterprises will be gradually changed with the deepening of new electricity reform. How to regulate electricity transmission and distribution sector and improve grid efficiency becomes a crucial problem to address. This paper aims to examine the relationship between market power and power grid efficiency. We calculate the unconditional and conditional efficiency of grid companies by applying a conditional slack-based measure (SBM) model. The empirical results show that grid efficiency is at a low level and the indicators differ among provinces and regions. Moreover, market power indeed has significant negative effects on power grid efficiency. These findings provide some insightful references for the future development of China's power industry and electricity reform.     

Regional disparity and convergence of electricity consumption in China: A distribution dynamics approach

One critical factor that affects China's achievement of its peak emission by 2030 is total electricity demand. The aim of this study is to examine regional disparity in electricity consumption in China. The analysis is based on a panel database which is compiled at the provincial level. A distributional dynamics approach is then employed to reveal the trend and movement of each province within the distributions in different regional groupings. The mobility probability plot (MPP) is also employed to provide detailed information on the probability of change in electricity consumption. The results demonstrate significant divergence presents across provinces, over time and within different regional groups. The results can pinpoint the transition mechanism within each region so that appropriate energy policy can be formulated to accommodate future demand in electricity for different regions in China. The results suggest that regional specific energy efficiency policy is needed.     

How can China's power sector reform reduce carbon emissions? A long-term competition perspective

Challenges coexist with opportunities for achieving carbon neutrality through power sector reform. Based on the ongoing reform in China and generator-level data in 2019, we identify three channels through which the reform could affect carbon emissions. We analyze the theoretical mechanisms under a long-term average cost competition framework, evaluate the emission reduction potentials of the three channels, explore the obstacles in achieving these potentials, and propose corresponding solutions. We find the following: (1) By reshaping the generation competition between high-efficiency and low-efficiency coal-fired generators, the reform has the potential to reduce carbon emissions by 205.4 million tons. However, considering the high financial costs of high-efficiency generators, realizing the full potential is difficult. (2) Administrative promotion of renewable energy could reduce carbon emissions by 311 million tons, but with large implicit expenses, which makes the promotion unsustainable. (3) The price dividend induced by the reform could increase carbon emissions by 98.1 million tons. To achieve emission reduction potentials in the first two channels and offset the rebound effect in the third channel, we propose explicitly pricing carbon. Without other supporting measures, a carbon price of over 400 Chinese yuan per ton of carbon dioxide is essential for the reform to eliminate barriers to its implementation.     

数字金融对碳排放强度的空间效应及影响机制

基于中国2011—2020年省级面板数据，采用双向固定效应模型、中介效应模型、空间计量模型研究数字金融对区域碳排放强度的影响。研究发现：数字金融发展对碳排放强度具有显著的抑制效应，进行内生性处理后结论依然成立；数字金融通过经济发展质量、产业结构升级降低了碳排放强度；空间溢出效应分析表明数字金融对邻近地区碳排放强度具有正向空间溢出效应。因此，各地区之间应保持紧密的合作，不断推进数字金融高质量发展，因地制宜地发展数字金融。     

区域异质性视角下的碳排放、经济增长与产业结构——基于PVAR模型的实证研究

选取1995—2019年中国省域面板数据,构建PVAR模型,探究东中西三大区域碳排放、经济增长与产业结构的互动影响。研究结果表明：从全国层面来看,经济增长带动产业结构高级化发展,并与碳排放之间存在长期动态耦合关系,且需长期看待产业结构带来的碳减排作用;从区域异质性来看,东中部地区基本实现变量间协调发展,西部地区碳排放对经济增长更依赖,但三者间并没有形成良好的互动机制。最后依据研究结果,对各区域低碳协调发展提出政策建议。     

基于灰色-ARIMA耦合模型的中国发电量短期预测

针对国内发电量的持续增长现象,基于中国2012—2021年的发电量数据,使用新陈代谢GM(1,1)模型与阻尼趋势模型耦合所得的灰色- ARIMA耦合模型,对中国2022—2030年的短期发电量进行预测。比较新陈代谢GM(1,1)、传统GM(1,1)与新信息GM(1,1) 模型的试验结果,将误差平方和最小的模型与ARIMA模型耦合,引入时间序列分析来拟合发电量,构建等权的灰色-ARIMA耦合预测模型,得到2022—2030年发电量的可靠耦合预测数据,具有一定的鲁棒性。为我国制定新能源措施和发展规划,实现碳中和、碳达峰及可持续发展具有重要的借鉴意义。     

双碳目标下中国的环境会计变革与实现路径探究

双碳目标提出以来，碳达峰和碳中和的目标要求被正式纳入中国经济社会发展的长期规划，环境会计的理论和实务研究也需要进行相应的变革和调整。通过对企业生产过程中降碳措施的具体执行情况进行目标分解和因素归集，分析得出当前中国的环境会计变革仍然存在碳会计标准不统一、环境规则不完善、信息披露质量低、专业人才缺乏等问题。结合双碳目标的内在要求，从碳会计准则、环境会计体系建设、信息披露机制、人才培养等方面提出解决方案。     

“双碳”目标下中国碳达峰预测和减排路径研究

探究“双碳”目标下中国碳达峰预测和减排路径具有重要现实意义。基于系统动力学模型和对数平均迪式指数法(LMDI)研究发现,中国碳排放量呈倒“U”形曲线,将在2035年实现碳达峰。碳排放影响因素中经济发展对中国碳排放的贡献率最大,其次是技术创新、产业结构、人口规模和能源结构。碳减排路径中,技术创新是实现碳减排承诺的关键路径,经济增长放缓将推迟中国碳排放峰值的到来。针对减排路径结果,从技术创新、经济质量、能源结构、产业结构、人口规模等方面提出针对性建议,以加速中国碳达峰进程。     

Regional allocation of carbon dioxide abatement in China

This paper aims to identify which provinces will be allocated more (less) of a carbon dioxide reduction burden within China's pledge to reduce its carbon intensity at the Copenhagen conference. Using an extended Slacks-Based Measure (SBM) model incorporating an undesirable output, the CO₂ reduction potential and marginal abatement costs are estimated for 29 provinces over the period 1995–2007. The CO₂ Abatement Capacity Index (ACI) is constructed based on weighted equity and efficiency indexes. We find that there exists a large gap in potential reduction capability and marginal abatement cost among the eastern, middle and western regions. The eastern region has the least inefficient emission and the highest marginal abatement cost, while the western region has the largest potential reduction capability and the lowest marginal cost faced in reducing CO₂ emissions. The difference in potential CO₂ abatement among the provinces results from different industry structures, energy compositions and degrees of the openness of trade. The ACI ranking and the final allocation among provinces depend on the policy-makers' preferences regarding equity and efficiency.     

Driving factors of CO2 emission inequality in China: The role of government expenditure

China has reached a consensus regarding the total control of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions; however, regional emission inequalities still exist. The reduction of carbon emissions is a public good and indicates a strong positive externality, which is difficult to solve within the market. Such reductions are highly dependent on governmental contributions. Therefore, using the Theil index and the logarithmic mean Divisia index decomposition approach, this paper integrates government expenditure into an analysis framework, investigating the driving factors of emission inequality and the status and changes of China's CO₂ emission inequality from 2007 to 2015, attributing emission inequality to disparities in governmental expenditures, energy consumption, and other socioeconomic factors. The empirical results show that imbalances in economic development, population distribution, and energy structure were prerequisites for a regional emission inequality, while disparities in government expenditure also played an important role. Among these factors, disparities in the expenditure structure were the main cause for emission inequality. The findings of this paper provide guidelines for the government to set carbon emission reduction quota and implement reasonable differentiated emission reduction policies.     

Who Influences the Asian–Pacific Real Estate Markets: The US,Japan or China?

As rapid economic growth in China has led to significant appreciation of urban real estate market values, this study examines China's influence on Asian–Pacific real estate markets by focusing on their respective market integration with the US, Japan and China during the period January 2005 to December 2017. Market integration is examined by unconditional and time‐varying conditional correlations, nonlinear Granger causality and dynamic connectedness effects. Overall, although the US and Japanese real estate markets have significantly influenced return and volatility in the regional markets, China has emerged as another major regional real estate volatility leader with rising influence over volatility integration, especially during the 2007–2011 crisis period. Financial crises have strengthened China's volatility connectedness effects and market integration with other Asian–Pacific real estate markets. Our results imply that the benefits of regional portfolio diversification may be declining as volatility integration across the Chinese and Asian–Pacific real estate markets becomes stronger. Therefore, diversified global investors should pay greater attention to these real estate markets.     

Distortions at the Border; Integration Inland: Assessing the Effect of WTO Accession on China's Agriculture

The main goal of the paper is to address the impact of the WTO on China's agricultural sector. To accomplish this goal we address two sets of issues. First, we seek to provide measures of the distortions in China's agricultural sector at a time prior to the nation's accession to WTO. This is accomplished by estimating the nominal rates of protection (NPRs) of the agricultural sector's major commodities using a new methodology to account for grain quality differences within China and between China and the world market. Second, we seek to assess how well integrated China's markets are in order to understand which areas of the country and which segments of the farming population will likely be isolated from, or affected by, the changes that WTO will bring. We find that NPRs differ among commodities. Some of China's agricultural commodities are well above and others are well below world market prices. We also find that if increased imports or exports affect China's domestic price at the border, its own domestic markets are mostly integrated so that price shifts in one area will affect prices in most of the rest of China. Our analysis finds, however, that a number of policy and structural factors limit the overall size of the shock.     

A view from behavioral political economy on China's institutional change

A behavioral political economy framework is built on the basis of prospect theory to explain the induced and imposed institutional changes during China's market reform, giving special attention to the integrated effects of economic and political institutions. According to prospect theory, how rulers frame their decisions — in the prospects of gains or losses, influences how much risk they will take. China's market reform has been largely framed in the prospects of economic gains, for which the continuously growing private sector is the driving force. China's central government adopts a growth-oriented incremental reform that coincides with the prediction of prospect theory.     

What Factors Can Explain the Rising Spatial Disparity in Economic Activities in China?

This paper explores the impact of spatial externalities in shaping China's economic geography by establishing a theoretical framework that contains regional productivity, trade barriers and local amenities to capture spatial externalities between different regions over time. Combining provincial data on bilateral trade flows with observed information about economic geography during the period 1998–2013, we estimate the distribution and marginal contribution of each explanatory factor. Empirical results suggest that regional labor density and wage are positively related to exogenous productivity and amenities, and negatively related to trade barriers. Meanwhile, variation in the marginal contribution of exogenous productivity and amenities and trade barriers reflects the regional temporal–spatial features in China's recent marketization process. Therefore, the Chinese government should place more emphasis on absorbing advanced technologies and reducing inter‐regional market barriers to promote balanced regional development and improve the efficiency of China's spatial resource allocation.     

Structural Challenges to Sustained Economic Growth in China

This essay focuses on three broad sets of issues that may not slow China's GDP growth to under 3 percent a year, but they will almost certainly create major social and physical problems that will be difficult to deal with. The first is the demographic and education challenges featured by a rapidly aging population combined with a large share of the population being under-educated. The second is the environmental challenges China faces in achieving the state goal of carbon neutrality by 2060. The third challenge is low consumption and unprecedentedly high investment, a strategy that has driven China's high growth rates in the past decades but is no longer sustainable. These three challenges are intertwined, making China's adjustment path even more uncertain. What would a sustainable development strategy involve? The clearest need is to shift investment away from energy-intensive housing and infrastructure and toward investment in people.     

Carbon inequality in China: Evidence from city-level data

Carbon inequality has attracted increasing attention worldwide. Utilizing data from China's High Spatial Resolution Emission Gridded Database (CHRED), this paper presents the measured CO₂ emission inequality in China for the years 2005, 2012, 2015, and 2020. Results show that the Gini coefficients of carbon emission report a slight decrease from 0.411 to 0.385 and the distribution becomes more symmetric from 2005 to 2020. Linking carbon inequality to economic level, the positive concentration index (0.230 to 0.118) indicates asymmetricity between carbon emission and economic development. A further decomposition analysis reveals the industrial sector's uneven development, indicating that energy-intensive features can be blamed for a large proportion of carbon inequality. Our findings suggest that policymakers should not consider economic development level alone as the only indicator of the allocation of abatement, as economic structure, energy intensity, and climate conditions are all responsible for such inequality.     

Economic development and carbon dioxide emissions in China: Provincial panel data analysis

This paper investigates the driving forces, emission trends and reduction potential of China's carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions based on a provincial panel data set covering the years 1995 to 2009. A series of static and dynamic panel data models are estimated, and then an optimal forecasting model selected by out-of-sample criteria is used to forecast the emission trend and reduction potential up to 2020. The estimation results show that economic development, technology progress and industry structure are the most important factors affecting China's CO₂ emissions, while the impacts of energy consumption structure, trade openness and urbanization level are negligible. The inverted U-shaped relationship between per capita CO₂ emissions and economic development level is not strongly supported by the estimation results. The impact of capital adjustment speed is significant. Scenario simulations further show that per capita and aggregate CO₂ emissions of China will increase continuously up to 2020 under any of the three scenarios developed in this study, but the reduction potential is large.