Using sublexical priming to enhance brand name phonetic symbolism effects in young children

We examine whether phonetic symbolism effects are conditional on the development of phonological awareness (an ability to recognize sounds in words). Further, we introduce sublexical priming as a means to enhance phonetic symbolism effects. Across four experiments, we demonstrate that product evaluations, consistent with phonetic symbolism theory, are more (less) likely when a child is older (younger). Specifically, older children who can recognize sounds in words perceive back vowel brand names (e.g., Vopoz) as slower, heavier, larger, smoother, creamier, chewier, and thicker than brand names with front vowel sounds (e.g., Vipiz). In addition, we show that phonetic symbolism effects manifest when younger children (low in phonological awareness) are primed to focus on parts of a word/s, which we term sublexical priming. We present embedded tasks and chunking of brand names as strategic communication techniques that can be implemented as sublexical primes to enhance phonetic symbolism effects in younger children.     

A rose by any other name …: Color‐naming influences on decision making

Companies dealing in colors (e.g., paint companies, the cosmetic industry) spend enormous amounts of time and money selecting names to accompany their various product lines in an attempt to maximally appeal to and lure in consumers. In two experiments, the current research examines the extent to which such naming strategies have an impact on consumer behavior. Across both experiments, participants rated either color swatches (Experiment 1) or products (Experiment 2) that had either generic names (e.g., brown) or fancy names (e.g., mocha) attached to them. The results of each experiment revealed that names significantly influence how colors are perceived, and that fancy names result in significantly more favorable ratings than do generic names. Both theoretical and applied implications of this phenomenon are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Harsh voices,sound branding: How voiced consonants in a brand's name can alter its perceived attributes

This paper examines the sound-symbolic link between voiced obstruents (speech sounds created by obstructing the airflow) present in a brand name and the perceived product/brand attributes. In three studies (two using self-reported measures and one using an implicit reaction time paradigm), we tested the effect of voiced (b, d, g, z, v) versus voiceless obstruents (p, t, k, s, f) across 25 hypothetical brand names, on the perceived product attributes of harshness (vs. softness). Brand names with voiced (vs. voiceless) obstruents are perceived as harsh (vs. soft/mild). Results are described across two different product categories (e.g., toilet cleaner and skin conditioner), and also within the same product category (e.g., strong vs. light beer and strong vs. mild toilet cleaner). Since sound symbolism is culturally agnostic, brands expanding into international and linguistically different markets can use these insights to create brand names that will have international appeal, and can match the product and/or brand attributes that brands wish to convey to consumers.     

Unlocking competitiveness through scent names: A data-driven approach

Naming a product’s scent is a key decision. The same scent can be interpreted differently when different names are assigned to it. Thus, choosing the right scent name can increase competitiveness by successfully appealing to desired consumer segments. We propose that such decisions should be data driven (i.e., on the basis of competitors’ offerings and consumers’ preferences) and provide guidelines on how to assign scent names to products in home care and personal care product categories, focusing on capturing market segments. Based on a large web-based dataset of scented products across multiple brands and categories, this article is the first to construct a typology of scent names empirically: unscented, concrete, abstract, and proprietary. After examining firms’ assortments of scented products with different names across 12 categories and comparing them with consumers’ preferences concerning such assortments, we identify major gaps. Overall, consumers demand far more unscented products and products with abstract names than currently offered; however, preferences for products with proprietary names are mostly aligned. Strategic recommendations center on naming scented products to better align supply and demand in the scented product market and capture new market opportunities.     

How competitor brand names affect within-brand choices

This research shows that consumers’ intra-brand choices (e.g., Mercedes C330 vs. C340) can be affected by exposure to a competitor alphanumeric brand name that forms an incidental trend with the numbers in the focal brand names (e.g., BMW320i or BMW350i). We propose and test two mechanisms. First, when no attribute information is available, the competitor brand can make the numerical trends formed by brand names salient and meaningful, and increase the preference for higher brands (e.g., Mercedes C340). Second, when attribute values are negatively correlated with brands, exposure to the competitor brand name can trigger brand-attribute magnitude tradeoffs. In five experiments, we demonstrate that our predictions hold when there are no intrinsic brand-attribute associations, and even when the competitor brand is not available for choice. We identify competitive categorization as a boundary condition and demonstrate that the effect diminishes when consumers do not categorize the nonfocal option as a competitor.     

Communicating brand gender through type fonts

The marketing literature suggests that positioning a brand in terms of brand gender (i.e., brand masculinity and brand femininity) generates favorable consumer responses, yet there is little research on how brand gender perceptions arise. This research examines whether type font can be employed to create brand gender perceptions in the context of unfamiliar brands. Building on the theoretical framework of personality inferences based on static cues, three studies involving a range of type fonts, brand names, and product categories demonstrate that type font influences consumers’ perceptions of brand gender. Type font effects emerged for brand names presented in isolation (Study 1), brand names presented on signage (Study 2a), and brand names on product labels (Studies 2b and 3). Importantly, type font effects on brand gender persisted in the presence of a competing brand gender cue (i.e., brand name with gender associations), and type font and brand name influenced brand gender perceptions independently. A fourth study demonstrates that type fonts representing the brands influence consumers’ likelihood to recommend the brand. The article concludes with a discussion of theoretical and brand management implications.     

What should we call this color? The influence of color-naming on consumers' attitude toward the product

Many companies use unique color names to differentiate products, attract consumer attention, and promote sales. This study categorizes the names of colors in detail, and uses schema incongruity and affect regulation theory to elucidate the effects of color names with different typicality and ambiguity. We identify the underlying mechanism and explore how color attribute importance and color name valence moderate the effects of the color name. The results of five studies show the following: (a) atypical-low ambiguity color names (vs. atypical-high ambiguity and typical color names) create a more favorable consumer attitude toward the product; (b) when color is the primary attribute of the product, typical color names are more effective; when color is a secondary attribute, atypical color names yield more favorable effects; (c) for positively-valenced color names, an atypical-low ambiguity naming method yields a better response, while for negatively-valenced color names, an atypical-high ambiguity naming method yields a more favorable response; and (d) the color-naming effects are mediated by perceived product uniqueness or playfulness, depending on different conditions.     

The role of position,type, and combination of sound symbolism imbeds in brand names

Sound symbolism research provides considerable support for the relationship between sound and meaning. What is not well understood is how best to imbed sound symbolism to create meaningful brand names. This research investigates three basic decisions or issues that marketers face when embedding sound symbolism in brand names—i.e., (a) where to position the imbed, (b) what type of imbed to use, and (c) what is the effect of combining imbeds. Results of study 1 indicate that imbeds placed after the first syllable of a brand name communicate branding meaning. Also, brand meaning is better conveyed by vowels than consonants in a brand name. Combining consistent vowel and consonant imbeds in a brand name provides an additive effect with respect to communicating brand meaning. Results of study 2 show that combining consistent imbeds in a brand name can have a favorable impact on product choice.     

Evaluating Facebook brand content popularity for service versus goods offerings

Marketers using social media are struggling with its successful implementation, specifically in engaging their audiences through creation of popular brand content. Yet, creating popular brand content can lead to positive financial and brand outcomes. This research examines Fortune 500 companies' brand content strategies that contribute to Facebook content popularity metrics (i.e., number of likes and comments) for service versus goods offerings. Building on psychological motivation theory and the noted differences in culture and capabilities between goods and service firms, the article analyzes the key differences in service and goods brand content strategies in terms of branding, message appeals, and vividness. The findings from a multivariate multilevel Poisson model show that the use of corporate brand names is more popular for service messages whereas the use of product brand names, images, and videos is more popular for goods messages. Furthermore, service messages generate a higher number of comments than goods messages.     

Me,myself, and Ikea: Qualifying generic self-referencing effects in brand judgment

The present research extends previous work on the latent tendency to be attracted to objects, events and entities that are associated with the self by demonstrating when and how generic self-referencing brand names influence brand judgment. In five studies we hypothesize and find that using pronouns in brand names that refer to the consumer's self (i.e., ‘I’ or ‘my’ as in ‘iTunes’ or ‘MySpace’) produces an attraction effect and promotes favorable brand responses. The strength of the effect hinges on the extent to which the consumer's self-view is positive. In addition, we test a logical extension of the effect and show that attraction turns into avoidance when consumers' acute self-view is negative, particularly for products for which the association with the consumer's self is more salient, i.e., self-expressive products.     

The effects of romantic motives on numerical preferences

The current research considers whether romantic pair-bond motivations influence numerical preferences. Across cultures and throughout history, the number “2” has been symbolic of a romantic pair bond. We propose that reminders of romance lead people to prefer the number “2” and other associated even numbers. A series of studies demonstrate that romantic motives—goals related to forming a romantic pair-bond—increase preference for the number “2” and other numbers of its parity (i.e., even vs. odd numbers) as well as marketing stimuli featuring even (vs. odd) numbers. This effect is specific to romantic motives and does not occur for motives related to other social relationships, such as work relationships, kinship, and friendship. Consistent with the motivational perspective, the desire to form a romantic relationship statistically mediates the effect of romantic cues on preference for even numbers. Subsequently, the effect of romantic motives on preference for even (vs. odd) numbers are suppressed when the focal goal has been already achieved (i.e., having a romantic relationship) or when an individual endorses a promiscuous lifestyle (i.e., having multiple partners simultaneously).     

The Image Realism Effect: The Effect of Unrealistic Product Images in Advertising

Many advertisements use unrealistic images of products (e.g., hand drawings, digital illustrations, rotoscoped animation) instead of actual product images. However, while unrealistic product images are widely used in advertisements, little is known about their possible impact on product evaluation. We propose that because products in unrealistic images look unconsumable or unusable, unrealistic product images (1) suppress consumers’ mental simulation of consuming or using those products and (2) increase uncertainty in the judgment of these products’ characteristics. As a result, unrealistic images attenuate the judgment of a product’s characteristics (both benefits and drawbacks). That is, the same characteristics are judged less intensely when a product is presented as an unrealistic image instead of a realistic image. Through seven studies, we demonstrate this effect for food items (e.g., bread, cupcakes, hamburgers, and chips) and durable goods (e.g., automobiles), finding support for the underlying processes. We further demonstrate that the impact of unrealistic images is not restricted to product evaluation but also extends to actual consumption.     

Going to great lengths in the pursuit of luxury: How longer brand names can enhance the luxury perception of a brand

Brand names are a crucial part of the brand equity and marketing strategy of any company. Research suggests that companies spend considerable time and money to create suitable names for their brands and products. This paper uses the Zipf's law (or Principle of Least Effort) to analyze the perceived luxuriousness of brand names. One of the most robust laws in linguistics, Zipf's law describes the inverse relationship between a word's length and its frequency i.e., the more frequently a word is used in language, the shorter it tends to be. Zipf's law has been applied to many fields of science and in this paper, we provide evidence for the idea that because polysyllabic words (and brand names) are rare in everyday conversation, they are considered as more complex, distant, and abstract and that the use of longer brand names can enhance the perception of how luxurious a brand is (compared with shorter brand names, which are considered to be close, frequent, and concrete to consumers). Our results suggest that shorter names (mono‐syllabic) are better suited to basic brands whereas longer names (tri‐syllabic or more) are more appropriate for luxury brands.     

Implicit and explicit preferences for brand name sounds

This research shows that people implicitly and explicitly prefer sounds that are more common among top brand names (e.g., “S,” “M,” “L,” and “E”). Implicit preferences correlate with explicit willingness to pay more for hypothetical brands with preferred sounds. This suggests that the prevalence of certain sounds among top brands may be a reflection of people’s phonetic preferences. We examine possible processes underlying phonetic preferences, and offer evidence excluding phonetic embodiment, pronunciation-based fluency, and familiarity-based fluency. The results suggest a phonetic frequency process account. Substantively, these findings indicate that certain sounds should be given priority when crafting brand names.     

How Product–Environment Brightness Contrast and Product Disarray Impact Consumer Choice in Retail Environments

A conceptual model is developed to predict how consumers respond to in-store displays as a function of the extent to which a product’s brightness level (i.e., its perceived light-emitting quality) contrasts with that of its background environment and the product’s level of disarray. We show that products whose brightness levels contrast more with those of the retail environment are more preferred because they visually “pop out” (e.g., a dark product in a brightly lit store environment). However, this preference reverses when the products that pop out appear in disarray (i.e., are perceived to have been previously touched by other shoppers). Because most stores are bright environments, darker (vs. lighter) products in disarray are more likely to be perceived as contaminated and less pleasant, leading to avoidance behaviors, evident in reduced sales and preference. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.     

Time is money: Field evidence for the effect of time of day and product name on product purchase

By analysing over 8000 sales transactions from one UK bakery, this paper suggests that consumers' preferences for products with names that are perceived as having “locomotion qualities” (i.e. qualities associated with vitality and movement) can change depending on the time of purchase. In the morning, consumers preferred products with names that were perceived as being high in locomotion qualities with this reducing as the day progressed. Interestingly, the seasonal shift in sunrise moderated these effects. The conceptual explanation suggests a role for a circadian rhythm in how consumers respond to the locomotion qualities of a product name. Our research contributes insights into the biological basis of consumer behaviour and expands locomotion as a concept to describe the perception of products rather than people's individual differences.     

Strategic Trade Policy and Network Compatibility

We consider strategic trade policy for information and communication technology (ICT) product markets with international rivalry. Usually, ICT products exhibit network externalities and product compatibility (i.e., network compatibility). We demonstrate that the optimal strategic trade policy depends on the degree of network compatibility of ICT products. Furthermore, using an endogenous decision game for strategic variables (i.e., quantity and price), we consider the relationship between the optimal strategic trade policies and the endogenous mode of competition.     

Investigation of the ordering behavior of a retailer in the revenue sharing and buyback contracts considering round number bias

This study investigates the ordering behavior of a boundedly rational retailer who purchases a product from a rational supplier under a revenue sharing or buyback contract. We develop a behavioral model considering random error, learning effect and anchoring bias using a logit choice framework which also includes a new behavioral paradigm known as round number bias. Experimental data and theoretical analysis are employed to demonstrate the differences between retailer order quantity and related optimal decisions using the suggested behavioral model. We found that round numbers are enticing anchors in retailer ordering decisions. The findings further reveal that the adaptive learning model better explains and predicts the retailer's ordering behavior than the time trend learning model. Moreover, the results indicate that the prediction accuracy of the model is higher for revenue sharing compared to buyback contracts.     

Reference Points Used In Quality And Value Judgements

We propose that a fundamental difference between quality and value judgments is that consumers rely more on internal standards (i.e., information stored in memory) to evaluate a brand's quality and external standards (i.e., reference brands available in the evaluation context) to assess a brand's value. Since internal standards are relatively stable and external reference brands may change across contexts, value judgments are more context-dependent than quality judgments. In addition, we propose that the relative invariance of quality ratings to contextual product information will hold only for consumers who are relatively familiar with the product category and the target brand. To examine the underlying mechanisms, an experimental study varies task, comparison brand information and familiarity and uses a process tracing methodology.     

Does the devil wear Prada? Luxury product experiences can affect prosocial behavior

Despite the explosive growth of luxury consumption, researchers have yet to examine how the experience of using luxury products affects us both psychologically and behaviorally. In this research, we explore how the experience of using a luxury product can alter a user's perceptions of themselves and their behavior toward other people. We gave women either a luxury product (e.g., Prada handbag) or a non-luxury product (e.g., unbranded handbag) to use, and afterwards, we presented women with opportunities to exhibit either selfish or generous behaviors toward others. We found that, after using a luxury product, women exhibited more selfish behavior, such as sharing fewer resources with others and contributing less money to charity than women who used a non-luxury handbag. We also found this pattern can be reversed, with luxury users exhibiting more generous behavior when the generous behavior can be performed in front of other people. Further, we show that these patterns of selfish and generous behaviors are mediated by changes in perceived status and superiority that are triggered when women experience using a luxury product.