Using consumer perceived ethicality as a guideline for corporate social responsibility strategy: A commentary essay

“Consumer Perceived Ethicality” presents a framework of perceived consumer ethicality as summarized from in-depth interviews with 20 citizens of the United Kingdom and Germany. The framework identifies six broad domains and 36 sub-items (6 for each domain) that serve as examples of consumer-generated “unethical corporate behaviors.” This commentary highlights the contributions, discusses the limitations and presents an alternative perspective on the study of consumer perceived ethicality.     

Using product design strategically to create deeper consumer connections

Historically, product design has most often been considered a process for creating functional differentiation through added features, superior performance, and so forth. However, with the advent of more design-oriented companies, such as Apple, Dyson, and others, design is increasingly being seen as an important strategic tool in creating preference and deeper emotional value for the consumer. In this research, we show how different design elements may be used strategically to create two very different outcome chains from a consumer's perspective. This work shows that certain design elements are more likely to create functional product differentiation and transactional consumer outcomes, while other design strategies tap a more emotional form of value creation. As we show, an emotional focus in value creation is more likely to create desired and powerful outcomes such as loyalty, joy of use, and even passion. Given current business trends towards relationship-based customer management, this emphasis on emotional value creation through product design is particularly relevant. In order to make these ideas actionable, we offer specific product design strategies that managers can use to enhance the transactional and relational value of their customer relationships.     

Using current consumer issues to involve students in research

The value of involving students in research has been well documented. By including students in research, active and independent learning opportunities are provided, the importance of inquiry and investigation is emphasized, and connections between course material and the discipline become evident. Relevant opportunities for involving students in research projects can sometimes be elusive. Faculty time constraints limit the number of projects that can be undertaken and the number of students involved. Furthermore, many students become intimidated when told that they are required to carry out a research project. The purpose of this study was to use current consumer issues to involve undergraduate students in a relevant research project. The research project was implemented in class settings with teams of students. Faculty selected contemporary consumer issues based upon perceived student interest and experiences as consumers. By using issues of high relevance and familiarity to students and using the team approach within a course that faculty members were already assigned to teach, the issues of time constraint for the faculty members and increased levels of comfort for students were addressed. Prior to undertaking the project, students were instructed in appropriate research methods. Research methods utilized included student development of survey instruments, collection and recording of data, interpretation of data and presentation of results. Students became familiar with various research practices. By working as team members, the students’ comfort level for being involved in research increased; however, other common group challenges arose. Relevant, contemporary consumer issues carry high relevance and interest for student groups, helping generate enthusiasm for the research process. The focus on involving students in research continues to be emphasized. By using research topics related to student's experiences as consumers, students are more readily engaged in undertaking research projects. Through these relevant research projects, students’ consumer decision making is positively impacted.     

抽象使用价值与生活资料消费规则

抽象劳动形成价值作为商品交换的民就度;有用劳动生产使用 众进为了满足人类社会的生活需要和生产需要。人类通过生产或交换获得物品,是为了得到特品的形体,还是为了取得它的属性：使用价值？依据使用价值就是商品体的传统观念,人类生产和交换的目的似科是得到商品体,只要得到商品体,使用民就得到了,如果这样理解,使用价值就没有随生产和交换的物品量的增加而边际递减的概念,人们消费的生产资料越多,似乎对他们所起的作用就越大;人们在生产过程中使用的生产资料越多,获得的生产效果也就越大。可是,介人们的消费实践活动,还是生产实践活动,都能够用客观事实说明,并不都是如此。事实表明,如果作为满足人们生活需要和生产需要的使用价值没有边际递减的性质,就会同人类实践活动的客观事实相矛盾。使用价值就是有用性,它喝砂能离开体而独立存在,但二者决不能被认为是一个概念。体现在生活资料物品上的有用性,是一种通过人的生理或者心理感受出来的东西;体现在生产资料物品上的有用性,是一种在生产过程中表现出来的实际效果。生活资料和生产资料的使用价值是有区别的,不能够用一个共同的东西来衡量,也不应该用同一个概念来表达。可以称生产资料的使用价值 为抽象使用价值,称生产资料的使用价值为具体使用价值。这就提出了问题,抽象使用价值和具体使用价值具有什么样的特性;抽象使用价值与生活资料的消费之间有什么样的关系,以什么样的消费制度安排能够实现生活资料的合理使用;具体使用价值与生产资料的使用之间有什么样的关系,以什么样的生产制度安排能够实现生产资料的合理配置。本文仅研究抽象使用价值与生产资料消费规则。     

The effects of corporate social responsibility and price on consumer responses

This experiment examined the influence of corporate social responsibility and price on consumer responses. Scenarios were created to manipulate corporate social responsibility and price across two domains (environment and philanthropy). Results from a national sample of adults indicate that corporate social responsibility in both domains had a positive impact on evaluation of the company and purchase intent. Furthermore, in the environmental domain corporate social responsibility affected purchase intent more strongly than price did.     

Meat labels: consumer attitude and meat consumption pattern

This paper addressed consumers’ attitude towards food labels and the influence of different aspects of meat labels on beef, poultry and seafood consumption using data from a national survey in the USA. Approximately 70% of the respondents reported that food labels helped in the purchases of beef and other meat products. While 50% thought that the present level of information on meat labels was about right, about 30% thought that it was insufficient. Similarly, 80, 81, 60, and 80% of the respondents thought that it was very important that meat labels contain information regarding nutrition, ingredients, health claim, and production process respectively. Those respondents who thought that nutrition and ingredient information on food labels were very important also thought that meat labels helped them select beef and other meat products. Consumer preferences for nutrition and ingredient information on food labels were positively related with meat consumption frequency.     

Fanatic consumer behavior: Athletics as a consumption experience

This research is an attempt to explore the effects of fanatic consumer behavior on the activities and resulting feeling states of consumers. Using a random national sample of triathletes, results demonstrate that extreme involvement with their sport affects many aspects of their lives, and produces both positive and negative feelings. A model, comprising motivations, resulting behaviors, and affective outcomes, is developed and validated. Finally, implications for future investigations of fanatic consumer behavior are provided.     

From consumer problems to consumer anomie

At the beginning of this century consumer problems in Europe were concentrated on the economic and functional aspects of consumption. These were concrete realities which were felt so strongly that efforts were made to solve them independently, e.g., by consumer co-operation.With steadfast extension of the market, consumer problems have become more diffuse. This is due to several circumstances: (a) the functional aspects of commodities have become more complex and their origin more difficult to identify; (b) the functional and symbolic aspects have become more entangled; (c) the traditional cultural distinction between good and bad in consumption has collapsed at the same time as new, branded products have made it more difficult to build up a new cultural code.As a result there is a problem of how to combine — in consumer choice — the symbolic and the functional dimensions of a commodity. One may say that it is typical for modern consumption that there are no rigid choice criteria and that uncertainty is inherent in consumer choice. If this holds true one can use the Durkheimian concept of anomie in describing the main problem in modern European consumption.

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Von Verbraucherproblemen zur Verbraucheranomie

Zusammenfassung Verbraucherprobleme waren zu Beginn dieses Jahrhunderts in Europa vorwiegend auf die wirtschaftlichen und funktionalen Aspekte des Konsums beschränkt. Diese Aspekte waren handfeste Wirklichkeit und wurden so stark empfunden, daß man alle Anstrengungen unternahm, sie unabhängig zu lösen, beispielsweise durch Verbraucher-Kooperation.Mit dem stetigen Wachstum der Konsumgütermärkte wurden Verbraucherprobleme in steigendem Maße diffus. Mehrere Ursachen kommen dafür in Betracht: (a) die funktionellen Aspekte der Güter wurden immer komplexer und in ihrer Herkunft schwieriger zu identifizieren; (b) die funktionalen und symbolischen Aspekte wurden immer stärker miteinander verknüpft; (c) traditionelle kulturelle Unterscheidungen zwischen gut und schlecht im Konsum lösten sich zu der Zeit auf, als die neu entstehenden Markenprodukte sich schwer damit taten, eine neue kulturelle Bedeutung zu vermitteln.Somit ergibt sich als Hauptproblem, wie in den Konsumentscheidungen die symbolische und die funktionale Dimension der Güter miteinander verbunden werden soll. Man könnte sagen, daß es für den modernen Konsum typisch ist, daß es keine festen Auswahlkriterien gibt und Kaufentscheidungen immer ein Element von Unsicherheit anhaftet. Wenn diese Beschreibung zutrifft, läßt sich das Hauptproblem des modernen europäischen Konsums mit dem Durkheim'schen Konzept der Anomie beschreiben.

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Kaj Ilmonen is a researcher at the Central Union of Consumer Co-operation in Finland and a Docent of Sociology at the University of Tampere. His address is: Kulutusosuuskuntien Keskusliitto (KK) r.y., Hämeentie 19, SF-00101 Helsinki 10, Finland.This paper was first presented at the symposium New Challenges for European Consumer Policy, held at Heiligkreuztal, FRG, on March 17–20, 1986 under the sponsorship of the European Cultural Foundation, the Commission of the European Communities, and IBM Deutschland.     

The history of consumption: A literature review and consumer guide

The history of consumption is fast becoming a vital area of academic research. For the social sciences, in general, this new field promises new insight into the great transformation of Western society. For consumer research, in particular, it promises the opportunity to create new perspectives, sources of data, and theoretical concepts. The purpose of this paper is to review recent literature on the history of consumption, and to offer a consumer guide for those who wish to use it in the study of modern consumer behavior and policy.

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Die Geschichte des Konsums: Ein Literaturüberblick und Leseführer

Zusammenfassung Die Geschichte des Konsums wird immer stärker zu einem wichtigen Gegenstand der akademischen Forschung. Für die Sozialwissenschaften im allgemeinen gilt, daß das neue Feld völlig neue Einsichten in die große Tranformation der westlichen Gesellschaften bietet. Für die Verbraucherforschung insbesondere gilt, daß es neue Perspektiven eröffnet, neues Datenmaterial erschließt und die Bildung neuer theoretischer Konzepte ermöglicht. Der vorliegende Beitrag will über die neuere Literatur über die Geschichte des Verbrauchs orientieren und Einstiegshilfen für denjenigen geben, der diese Literatur bei der Analyse des heutigen Verbraucherverhaltens und der Verbraucherpolitik benutzen möchte. Dabei warnt der Beitrag gleich zu Beginn vor einigen naheliegenden Betrachtungsfehlern, vor allem vor einer allzu gegenwartsbezogenen Betrachtung, die vergangene Perioden vorranging als die Vorwegnahme oder zumindest die Vorbereitung unserer Gegenwart auffaßt, sowie vor der Gefahr einer Projektion der eigenen Sichtweisen und Einstellungen auf eine andere Zeit, also die Erforschung einer vergangenen Zeit ausschließlich mit Denkweisen von heute.Die weiteren Abschnitte behandeln die verschiedenen Zusammenhänge, in denen Konsum gesehen werden kann: den kulturellen, den soziologischen, psychologischen, politischen und intellektuellen Kontext, sowie den Marketing- und den Verbraucherkontext. Diese Überlegungen können — so die Schlußfolgerung des Beitrages — einen entscheidenden Beitrag zu der Frage beitragen, weshalb sich in den westlichen Gesellschaften so große Veränderungen ergeben haben, die sich nicht nur in einer industriellen Revolution, sondern auch in einer Konsumrevolution niedergeschlagen haben.

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Grant McCracken is Assistant Professor, Department of Consumer Studies, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada. He wishes to thank Russell Belk, Victor Roth, Montrose Sommers, Richard Vosburgh, and anonymous referees for their comments on this paper.     

The impact of corporate social responsibility on consumer trust: the case of organic food

A critical and notoriously elusive issue in Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) research is the impact of Corporate Social Performance (CSP) on the bottom line. Instead of looking for direct correlations between social and financial performance, we hypothesize that the first result of CSR activities is the creation of trust among the stakeholders. A survey conducted on consumers of organic products provided support for our hypothesis, showing that CSP influences consumer trust and that that trust in turn influences consumers' subsequent actions. The findings further suggest that intermediate variables between CSP and Corporate Financial Performance (CFP) may best support a business case for CSR.     

谈如何看懂经济责任审计中的责任

本文着重阐述了经济责任审计的责任问题.     

Using response behaviour theory to solicit survey participation in consumer research: An empirical study

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to report on research that examines survey participation rates (i.e. response rates) for personal interview surveys where solicitation for participation is based on different theories of survey-response behaviour in two culturally distinct countries. Field experiments were designed to investigate the extent to which the theories of exchange, cognitive dissonance, self-perception, and involvement/commitment can influence potential respondents to participate in a personal interview survey in Australia and Hong Kong. The results show that there were significant differences in Australia with the theory of self-perception having the strongest impact on survey-response behaviour, while cognitive dissonance has the least impact. In contrast, the effects in Hong Kong were not significant. This study adds to the limited empirical research regarding why consumers participate in surveys, particularly personal interview surveys. The theories are applied at the self-introduction and invitation to participate, which is a crucial stage in the potential respondent's decision about participation.     

Affective responses to consumer situations

The behavioural perspective model of consumer choice (bpm) proposes three structural components of consumer situations from which consumers' verbal responses to consumption environments can be predicted. These are utilitarian reinforcement, informational reinforcement and behaviour setting scope. It is argued that pleasure, arousal and dominance, presented by Mehrabian and Russell as environmentally determined affective reactions, are respectively feasible verbal responses to these structural components. Consumers (N = 561) completed Mehrabian and Russell's measures of these affective reactions and of approach-avoidance for one of four ranges of verbally expressed consumption situations derived from the model. The results indicate that, for these theoretically grounded ranges of consumer situations, approach-avoidance is satisfactorily explained by pleasure, arousal and dominance. Further, mean differences in these affective variables between situations which, the bpm argues, show distinct patterns of reinforcement and behaviour setting scope are successfully predicted.     

Residential energy consumption: Models of consumer behavior and their implications for rate design

This article illustrates the use of bounded rationality concepts in policy analysis. Specifically, we discuss reasons why we expect residential energy consumption to deviate from the utility-maximizing level when multiple-tier rate structures are in use. Then we construct a simple, predictive model of boundedly-rational household behavior which can be tested against a conventional utility-maximization model. Our model predicts that households will over-consume when facing increasing tier rates and under-consume when facing decreasing tier rates.We then discuss some of the policy consequences of this behavior. One consequence, given the kind of increasing tier structures that are common in the United States, is that the magnitude of the overconsumption for a household is plausibly 10 percent in the short-run and 50 percent in the long-run. Another consequence, if policy is constrained to increasing tier rates with constant total consumer subsidy, is that the most efficient of these is likely to have a lower first-tier price and quantity than would be the case without bounded rationality. Finally, we note that both the bounded-rationality model and the utility-maximizing model support the use of a two-part tariff rate structure over tiered rate structures for residential consumers.

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Energieverbrauch privater Haushalte: Modelle des Verbraucherverhaltens und ihre Implikationen für die Tarifgestaltung

Zusammenfassung Der vorliegende Beitrag wendet das Konzept eingeschränkter Rationalität auf energiepolitische Zusammenhänge an. Es wird insbesondere erörtert, wie sich der Energieverbrauch privater Haushalte unter der Annahme eingeschränkter Rationalität von dem unterscheidet, wie er sich bei vollständiger Rationalität (Nutzenmaximierung) ergeben würde — vorausgesetzt, es gilt ein mehrfach gestaffelter Tarif. Die Autoren stellen ein einfaches Vorhersagemodell beschränkt rationalen Haushaltsverhaltens vor, das gegen ein konventionelles Nutzen-Maximierungsmodell getestet werden kann. Nach diesem Modell werden Haushalte bei progressiv gestaffelten Tarifen zu Überkonsum und bei degressiv gestaffelten Tarifen zu Unterkonsum tendieren.Anschließend werden einige politische Konsequenzen dieses Verhaltens diskutiert. Bei der Form progressiv gestaffelter Tarife, die in den USA üblich ist, ist eine Konsequenz, daß die Größenordnung des Mehrverbrauchs eines Haushaltes bei kurzfristiger Betrachtung bei 10%, bei längerfristiger Betrachtung bei 50% liegt. Wenn sich die Tarifpolitik auf progressiv gestaffelte Stufentarife mit konstanter Gesamtversorgung beschränkt, ist eine andere Konsequenz, daß die wirkungsvollste Tarifgestaltung bei beschränkter Rationalität einen niedrigeren Eingangstarif und eine niedrige Eingangsmenge fordert. Schließlich wird ausgeführt, daß sowohl das Modell eingeschränkter Rationalität wie auch das Nutzen-Maximierungs-Modell für einen zweistufigen Tarif anstelle eines mehrfach gestaffelten Tarifs spricht.

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Lee S. Friedman is Professor of Public Policy in the Graduate School of Public Policy, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. Karl Hausker is a staff Economist at the U.S. Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee, Dirksen Senate Office Building, Room 358, Washington, D.C. 20510, USA.The authors are grateful to the University of California Energy Research Group for its support of this research. They would like to thank Suzanne Scotchmer, the Editors, and two anonymous referees for their helpful comments.     

The vices and virtues of consumption choices: price promotion and consumer decision making

As consumers exhibit relatively more self-control over healthy products by limiting the purchase quantity of vice choices and buying more virtue choices to adhere to healthy-eating goals, a price promotion has a stronger effect on virtue than vice choices of healthy food. In contrast, consumers exhibit relatively less self-control over unhealthy products and evaluate price promotions as a persuasive temptation mechanism; thus, a price promotion has a stronger effect on vice than virtue choices of unhealthy food. The results of the empirical analyses provide support for these hypotheses.     

Perception of food safety and changes in food consumption habits: a consumer analysis

The relationship between seven types of food safety concerns and the corresponding change in food consumption habits of 236 households in Georgia, USA was evaluated. Results showed a gap between food safety concerns and food consumption habits. Gaps were particularly evident in the cases of pesticide residues, animal drug residues, growth hormones and bacteria. For example, more than 54% of sample households were extremely concerned about pesticide residues, but only 35% actually took extreme precaution in buying items considering this perceived threat. The study indicated that educating consumers about preventive methods to reduce food safety threats will lead to reduced concerns and changes in food consumption habits.     

Does consumer knowledge affect consumer responses to advertised reference price claims?

As expected, internal reference prices (IRPs) and purchase intentions for two product categories (microwave ovens and disposable razors) differed according to whether consumers possessed a high or low level of consumer knowledge about the product in this factorial design experiment. Contrary to theory and expectations, neither internal reference points nor purchase intentions were affected by exposure to comparative price advertisements. Students were used as subjects in a before-after procedure with approximately two weeks between pre- and postmeasures of IRPs and purchase intentions. Postmeasures were taken immediately after exposure to ads containing three levels of advertised reference prices. t tests indicated differences between high and low knowledge group IRP means before ad exposure. However, no ANOVA differences were detected in change in IRP or purchase intention scores after ad exposure. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Using social and consumer values to predict market‐place behaviour: questions of congruency

Social values and consumption values, although intricately linked, are not exactly the same. Nonetheless, marketers contend that the central premise of social value monitoring is that, if one understands people’s values, one can better predict how they will behave in the market‐place. This paper challenges this assumption because policy analysts and industries are relying on both the consumer and social value profiles at a time when society and the market‐place are undergoing a profound transition. Using Canada as a case study, the general societal values of consumers identified by pollsters are discussed relative to nine consumer values espoused by marketers. This comparative analysis suggests that many of Canadians’ alleged consumer values seem to be in direct conflict with their espoused social values. This conclusion implies that the validity of using social values as a proxy variable or predictor for consumer values needs to be examined by researchers and policy analysts. Also, future dialogue needs to occur about adhering to the convention of monitoring social and consumer values using public opinion polls while not marrying this process with public judgement dialogues. Finally, other countries are urged to examine the situation in their market‐place so as to facilitate cross‐cultural comparative analysis of consumer market‐place values.