Multiple equilibria and structural transition of non-monocentric urban configurations

A model of non-monocentric urban land use is presented, which requires neither employment nor residential location to be specified a priori. It is shown that the model is capable of yielding multicentric pattern as well as monocentric and dispersed patterns, and that the model generally yields multiple equilibria under each fixed set of parameter values. It is also shown that the city may undergo a catastrophic structural transition when the parameters take critical values.     

Evolution of urban housing stocks: A model applied to Baltimore and Houston

Historical simulations of urban residential growth in Baltimore and Houston based on a model of the growth process which has two distinct components are presented. The vintage component utilizes the growth of income and population, and an assumption that housing is putty-clay, to predict the age distribution of the housing stock in each period. The spatial component of the model determines where this housing construction will take place according to (1) housing is built on vacant land and (2) the pattern of construction obeys the rules of the standard monocentric models. Housing is demolished when economically obsolete. The putty-clay (vintage) aspect of the model produces fairly accurate city-wide vintage distributions, but there is much more mixing of vintages and income (in Baltimore) by location than predicted, even under monocentric assumptions most favorable to mixing.     

Modal choice,location demand,and income

W. Alonso's monocentric city model (″Location and Land Use,″ Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass. (1964)) is extended to explain the simultaneous choice of residential location, housing quantity, and work trip mode. Mode is conceived of as a continuous choice variable, each mode being characterized by a speed and a fare. Mode is shown not to be independent of location, so that location “prices” should be included in the mode demand equations used in urban transportation planning. Comparative statics of the model with respect to income are presented. The earlier finding that the effect of income increase on location is indeterminate is confirmed.     

城市空间结构理论——单中心城市静态模型

首先介绍了在西方城市经济理论中被广泛接受的单中心城市空间结构静态模型。然后,利用比较静态分析方法(comparativestaticanalysis),分析区位、居民收入及交通费用(区位,居民收入及交通费用为模型的外生变量(exogenousvariable))对价格和房屋消费量(价格和房屋消费量为模型的内生变量(endogenousvariable))的影响。最后,理论模型通过引进一般住房生产函数,推导出土地价格及资本密度(即建筑高度)的空间变化规律。通过对城市经济模型进一步分析(对极值条件或解的微分解析分析)得出地价(地租),资本密度(或称容积率),人口密度的空间分布规律,这些规律对城市规划,城市政策,引进市场原则和价格机制来提高城市土地利用效率都有理论指导意义。     

An extension of the monocentric urban spatial equilibrium model to a multicenter setting: The case of the two-center city

Firms in a monocentric city conforming in substance to the “new urban economics” produce an export commodity under agglomeration economies and employ homogeneous labor and capital. Workers reside about the CBD in decreasing densities with distance. A developer establishes a second export production center within the city's residential area. Conditions for economic viability and growth of the subcenter are examined, and its impacts on short-run and long-run city location patterns are discussed. A limiting condition on subcenter employment size is provided.     

A theory of residential location decisions of two-worker households

This paper presents a model of the residential location of a household with two members working in separate urban employment centers. A three-dimensional bid-rent surface is developed and compared with the bid-rent surfaces for three other types of land users. The resulting bid-rent surfaces are used to describe the location and shape of the regions where these various types of households will choose to reside in an urban community.     

TESTS OF THE STANDARD URBAN MODEL: A Micro (Trade-Off) Alternative

Three methods of testing the validity of the monocentric model (the negative house price gradient, the wasteful commuting approach, and the hypothesis of a trade-off between housing expenditures and commuting costs) are evaluated. The negative house price gradient is not supported by several recent hedonic models. "Wasteful" commuting is a poor test because it persists even a policentric world and may be more the result of the weakness of journey-to-work minimization as a key determinant of residence and/or workplace location. This study uses the commuting information presented in the 1985 American Housing Survey in eight large metropolitan areas to show that the trade-off hypothesis fails badly. Heterogeneous Preference for housing, commuting and indeed for all goods and services, combined with a wide variety of workplaces and choice of residential locations at highly, variable rents and house prices may be the major reason why the trade-off is not generally observed.     

Causality and intraurban location

Most intraurban location models in urban economics are based on a a priori assumption that employment is exogenous and a determinant of residential location. In this paper this assumption is relaxed or tested by estimating a dynamic model using pooled cross-sectional time-series data; the results suggest that causality runs from residence to employment, not vice versa.     

北京土地价格空间分布特征——基于单中心城市的视角

为了解具有单中心城市牦最的北京市．土地价格空间分布特征,从理论上分析单中心城市土地价格的空间分布特征并提出相应假设,构建土地价格的Hedonic模型,利用北京2005—2013年住宅和办公用地微观交易价格数据进行假设的实证检验。结果显示：（1）北京住宅和办公用地的区位属性、物理属性和邻里属性对其价格有显著决定作用,且该决定作用随土地市场的成熟而逐渐增强;（2）北京住宅和办公用地价格与该区位到城市中心的距离负相关,而随时间推移,两类土地价格从城市中心向外的降低速度逐渐变快。     

A simple urban growth model with durable housing

In the last decade the static theory of residential urban location and land use has been extensively developed. The theory has generated many useful insights, but because it ignores growth and the durability of housing and urban infrastructure there are many urban phenomena it cannot explain. In this paper a simple urban growth model with durable housing, in which all builders have perfect foresight, is presented. The discussion focuses on the qualitative differences between the economics of this model, the static class of models, and a class of dynamic models in which myopic expectations are assumed.     

Commuting distances in a household location choice model with amenities

Observed commuting distances generally exceed those predicted by standard models of household location choice. This paper develops a model with locational amenities and two job centers. It is shown that differences in household preferences for amenities can lead to various types of residential location patterns, some of which result in higher average commuting distances in the city.     

Optimal density of radial major roads in a two-dimensional monocentric city with endogenous residential distribution and housing prices

This paper proposes an analytical urban system equilibrium model for optimizing the density of radial major roads in a two-dimensional monocentric city. The proposed model involves four types of agents: local authorities, property developers, households and household workers (i.e. commuters). The local authorities aim to maximize the total social welfare of the urban system by determining the optimal density of radial major roads in the city. The property developers seek to determine the intensity of their capital investment in the land market to maximize the net profit generated from the housing supply. The households choose residential locations that maximize their utility within a budget constraint, and the commuters choose the radial major roads that minimize their individual costs of travel between home and workplace. A heuristic solution procedure is developed to find the urban system equilibrium solution. A system optimum model is also proposed to optimize the density of radial major roads that maximizes the social welfare of the urban system. The proposed model can endogenously determine household residential distribution and land values across the city, along with the housing market structure in terms of housing prices and space. Numerical comparative static analyses of congestion pricing and road infrastructure investment (adding a new radial major road) are carried out together with evaluation of the effects of the service level of radial major roads, urban population size, and household income level on the urban economy.     

Residential location and scheduling of work hours

The choices of residential location and work-start time in a monocentric city are examined. Workers may choose to live either near or far from the city center, where work takes place; they may also choose to start at a peak work-start time with many other workers, or to start at an off-peak time with fewer workers. The theoretical results indicate that the relation between choice of work-start time and location depends upon the effects of staggered work hours on income and the transportation technology in the city.     

对城区地下变电站的建设与思考

针对目前我国大中城市中心高级商业及住宅区中建设变电站所面临的新问题,提出对土地的综合利用等措施。将变电站与民用建筑结合建设,提出建设地下变电站。     

On the Endogeneous Formation of Secondary Employment Centers in a City

A new approach is proposed to explain the formation of secondary employment centers in a monocentric city. Specifically, a large firm considers locating a new plant in a city where none of the existing businesses has a significative share of the labor force, so that its location can be viewed as a secondary employment center. The choice of this location results from the interplay between the process of competition on both the labor and land markets and the technological externalities generated by the proximity of the city center where other firms are located.     

Population and employment densities: structure and change

"We examine spatial patterns and their changes during the 1970s for the Los Angeles region, by estimating monocentric and polycentric density functions for employment and population. Downtown Los Angeles is clearly identified as the statistical monocentric center of the region, and it is the most consistently strong center in the polycentric patterns. Polycentric models fit statistically better than monocentric models, and there was some shift in employment distribution toward a more polycentric pattern. These findings verify the existence of polycentricity in Los Angeles and demonstrate for the first time that employment and especially population follow a polycentric pattern based on exogenously defined employment centers. The results confirm that both employment and population became more dispersed during the 1970s."     

北京市就业中心的识别:实证方法及应用

基于城市空间结构的经典理论和就业中心识别的实证方法.利用北京市2001年和2004年的就业人口数据,在验证主中心存在的同时,采用两阶段方法,对次中心进行了识别.结果表明,北京目前仍然是一个单中心主导的城市空间结构,单中心方程对城市总体就业人口密度的解释能力超过了60%.但随着都市区的扩张,中关村等次中心开始陆续出现,并开始影响周边地区的就业分布和空间形态,这表明北京正向多中心的空间结构转变.此外,还也结合北京城市增长、制度转型和历史路径依赖的特点,对北京城市空间结构的演变机理进行了分析.     

An empirical model of residential location and the journey-to-work in a metropolitan area

In this paper we present and estimate a single equation model designed to explain the residential location behaviour of individuals living in a multi-centered metropolitan area. We test the model for heads of households and non-heads of households separately, as well as for the total working population, in order to isolate differences in commuting behaviour between primary and secondary wage earners. The relationships are estimated from 1971 Census, cross-section data using least squares multiple regression. The data pertain to the Toronto Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) and sixty-three designated zones therein.The estimation results reveal that although location-rents prove to be significant in the individual's residential location decision-making process, their effect was limited to discouraging those employed in or near the central business district (CBD) from living close to work. The existence of secondary employment centres did not have the same significant effect in bidding up location-rents. Furthermore, contrary to the standard theory, the results suggest that residential location decisions are made in response to the availability of collective residential opportunities and workers' preferences for specific residential attributes rather than by reference to the “transportation cost—housing cost” trade-off. Among the socio-economic variables, age of the worker is found to be most significant in affecting journey-to-work distance. The results provide some evidence that non-heads are, to a certain extent, more sensitive to urban structural constraints in their commuting behaviour.     

老旧小区改造模式化推广探究--西安碑林区老旧小区改造为例

在我国社会建设与发展中,对于城镇老旧小区的改造是一项重大的民生工程以及发展工程,可以有效满足社会人民群众对于美好生活的需要,全面推进惠民生、扩内需,助推城市的更新以及开发建设方式的转型,可以促使我国民生工程取得更加良好的成效。文章首先探讨与分析老旧小区改造的重要意义,老旧小区模式化推广的必要性,文中通过实际案例分析,最后提出相应的建议,希望可以为相关企业老旧小区改造工程全面推进贡献出绵薄之力。