Tourism and culture change: A symposium

The paper summarizes seven articles presented at the 1975 meetings of the American Anthropological Association in San Francisco, in a symposium entitled Tourism and Culture Change. Three main foci of research are discussed: The Traveler per se; the diverse impacts of tourism upon cultures in Puerto Vallarta (Mexico), the island of Myconos (Greece) and among the Mamainde Indians (Mato Grosso, Brazil); and the role and administration of the Polynesian Cultural Center (Hawaii) as an “ethnic model” and as a laboratory of cultural conservation.     

Domestic tourism as a development factor

Archer, Brian H., “Domestic Tourism as a Development Factor”, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. V, No. 1, January/March 1978, pp. 126–141. Domestic tourism brings about an intermingling of people from diverse social and cultural backgrounds and also a considerable redistribution of spending power. Although this paper concentrates mainly upon the economic effects created by the growth of domestic tourism and is illustrated by reference to some recent case studies, attention is also drawn to the favorable and unfavorable political, social, cultural, moral, environmental and conservational aspects of domestic tourism. The paper concludes by discussing some ways in which domestic tourism can provide an impetus to further economic growth in the holiday regions and also how domestic tourism may assist in solving some of the problems facing a country's international tourism.     

The seven sins of hunting tourism

In a review of situational pressures on tourists, we identify seven sins or risk zones that induce moral disengagement and allow for behaviour that would be considered unethical by the same people when not on holiday. The context of hunting tourism reveals the following sins act cumulatively on the hunting tourist: “The Pay Effect”, “The Tourist Bubble”, “Last Chance Tourism”, “The Bucket List”, “When in Rome”, “The False Display”, and “The Saviour”. Identifying these sins and the way hunting tourists draw from them to neutralize eco-guilt are argued to be a first step on the call to set standards and practices within consumptive wildlife tourism consistent with the Precautionary Principle in tourism planning.     

Photograph's role in tourism : Some unexplored relationships

Chalfen, Richard M., “Photography's Role in Tourism: Some Unexplored Relationships,” Annals of Tourism Research,” October/December 1979, VI(4):435–447. While photography is one of the most common attributes of tourist behavior, its role in tourism has never been studied. Tourist photography is understood as both photographs made by tourists and photographs made available to tourists by members of the host community. This paper draws attention to three unexamined topics: the relationship between certain tourist types and patterns of photographic behavior and/or content of photographs; the culturally variable standards of appropriate subject matter and camera use in different parts of the world; and the variety of responses exhibited by host communities to being photographed. Examples are given of host sensitivities and camera related disturbances. A trend is noticed in which host communities specify which images are appropriate and inappropriate for tourist photography.     

Foreign travel and tourism prices and demand

Sunday, Alexander A., “Foreign Travel and Tourism Prices and Demand,” Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. V, No. 2, April/June 1978, pp. 268–273. Using regression analysis and panel data this study estimates the parameter effect of prices on American demand for foreign travel and tourism. Findings suggest that higher air fares generate fewer tourists but greater expenditure per tourist visit.     

The effects of tourism on socio-cultural values

UNESCO, “The Effects Of Tourism On Socio-Cultural Values,” Annals Of Tourism Research, Vol. IV, No. 2, November/December 1976, pp. 74–105. It is generally argued that tourism can alleviate the present socio-economic difficulties in the less devloped countries. This literature search is a first analysis of European studies on international tourism and its economic and socio-cultural impacts on development. The search shows that, despite its recognized benefits, several negative consequences of tourism question the role that it can play in the socio-economic development of these countries. This UNESCO survey, to be couped with one by the World Bank, should facilitate a comprehensive study of the potentials of tourism.     

The impact of tourism in the Caribbean: A methodological study

Hills, Theo L. and Lundgren, Jan, “The Impact of Tourism in the Caribbean—A Methodological Study,” Annals of Tourism Research, Vol.IV, No.5, May/September 1977, pp. 248–267. The paper examines some economic, cultural and ecological problems arising from the impact of tourism in the Caribbean. Special attention is given to the nature and mechanism of the international tourist system and to the possibility of predicting saturation of tourist destinations by means of an irritation index. Types of data reflecting “space” as a resource are related to many types of tourist data, including a “seasonality index”.     

Cultural and non-cultural tourism: Evidence from Italian experience

Cultural tourism is recognized as one of the main resources used to counteract seasonality in tourist destinations, being by its very nature non-seasonal. Moreover, according to the generally accepted stereotype, cultural tourists tend to be ageing and therefore more likely to travel also during the off-peak season than younger tourists. Our data show that international cultural tourism has increased in Italy during the last 15 years, but this increase has not contributed to reducing seasonality. We have conducted a statistical analysis of the data in an attempt to explore the possible reasons behind such an unexpected finding. By comparing foreign cultural and non-cultural tourists through several socio-economic-demographic variables, our results highlight the fact that a “new (and younger) cultural tourism” is emerging in Italy. Consequently, promoting cultural tourism is just one component for effectively counteracting seasonality. Nevertheless, promotion should also focus on the dual concept of “cultural tourism/ageing tourists”.     

Diaspora Chinese tourism: Cultural connectedness and the existing academic insights

Tourism scholars and practitioners tend to regard diaspora tourism as a homogeneous market, with needs that can be met through general types of products. Adopting a literature review approach, this article has conducted a review of the extensive research on the diaspora, immigration, and root-seeking tourism to China. The conceptual framework provides a holistic perspective for researchers and destination managers to study diaspora tourism. This shows that the demand dimension of diaspora tourists is related to the structure of diaspora communities. Place attachment (sense of nostalgia), transnationalism, cultural (re)connectivity, hybrid self-identity (re)constructions and the nation-state power metrics of China for overseas Chinese, are as identified as factors that determine motivation for “returning home”. Further research is suggested to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the typology of diaspora tourism that may need to be considered in order to meet the needs of diaspora tourists in future planning and strategy formulation.     

Residents' Perceptions Toward the “Chinese Tourists' Wave” in Hong Kong: An Exploratory Study

Mainland China experienced an extraordinary progress in its economy in the past two decades which directly stimulates more outbound travels. Considering the geographical proximity and political ties between Hong Kong and Mainland China, the share of inbound tourists to Hong Kong has been, and will continuously be, largely occupied by Mainland Chinese tourists on an uprising basis. The phenomenon of the “Chinese tourists' wave”, operationalizing as the influx of tourists from Mainland China, has brought tremendous change on Hong Kong's tourism industry, economy and local community. It is, thus, of necessity to understand the perceptions and response toward this phenomenon from local residents' perspective as they are the stakeholders of local tourism. Drawing on the findings from three focus group interviews with 18 Hong Kong residents, three conventional dimensions, namely “Economic”, “Social-cultural” and “Environmental” were identified and discussed to demonstrate the local residents' perceptions toward the impact of “Chinese tourists' wave” phenomenon. Generally, residents tend to recognize the positive economic impacts as well as negative social–cultural and environmental impacts generated from this tourism phenomenon. The recommendations suggested in this study also serve as a reference for tourism authorities concerned to redress the existing problems.     

“Where fantasy becomes reality”: how tourism forces made Brazil a sexual playground

This paper examines the political economy of tourism representations and destination imaging in Brazil and its effect on tourism impacts in the country. The central argument is that the way Brazil and its women are represented in tourist images has an important effect on how they are consumed. By investigating the representation of Brazil and its women during colonial times by Europeans, by the Brazilian Government and by the contemporary Western media, this study explores how these representations have made Brazil a sexual playground for tourists. The study contributes to the tourism literature by concluding that Brazil's image is not a direct outcome of tourism representations alone; rather its destination image is strongly connected with complex historical, political and cultural processes.     

From gaze to dialogue: host–guest relationships in Lijiang,China, as illustrated by the case of Joseph F. Rock

The gaze places host and tourist in an “authority field” which is unfavorable to the development of harmonious interpersonal relationships and cultural interactions for both sides. Mutual, equal and just host–guest relationships should be established through dialogue, which will improve tourists’ understanding and experiences, awaken the hosts’ cultural consciousness and establish a new type of cultural interaction. The paper is based on analysis of the work and life experience of Joseph Rock in southwest China during 1922–1949. It uses content analysis to examine more than one thousand photos which contain visual representations of his gaze. The changing values of tourism to the ego and culture were revealed through a change in emphasis from “I–It” to “I–You” relationships as Rock turned from gaze to dialogue.     

The international division of leisure tourism and the third world

Turner, Louis, “The International Division of Leisure: Tourism and The Third World,” Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. IV, No. 1, September/October 1976, pp. 12–24 --Despite the obvious attractions of tourism as a foreign exchange earner for a number of developing countries, the industry is dominated by the rich countries which appropriate most of the economic benefits from the tourist trade. This domination takes economic and political forms, and tends to increase over time as tour operators diversify and grow vertically. The policies open to the less developed countries to increase their returns are discussed, and the difficulties they may face are mentioned.     

Taming wicked problems: towards a resolution of tourism access to Traditional Owner lands in the Kimberley region,Australia

This paper names and describes the longstanding issue of tourism access to the Kimberley coast region in northwest Australia. Tourism access is a problem because it occurs without appropriate permissions from the Traditional Owners. The granting of access permission is a fundamental component of the local Traditional Owner ontology, or concept of being. Tourism activities cannot be culturally sustainable without appropriate Traditional Owner permissions. We argue that this seemingly simple issue is a “wicked problem” and must be recognised as such to facilitate its “taming” to create a culturally sustainable local tourism industry. The paper first examines the cultural and historical context, establishing a more nuanced understanding of the problem. Framed in Rittel and Webber's definition of a wicked problem, it then describes its complex and intercultural nature, highlighting repeated and continuing efforts and failures by key parties to address it, linked to an ingrained lack of political will. We conclude that operators could take ownership of the wicked problem and contribute to taming it by proactively engaging in a direct relationship with Traditional Owners based on transformational learning. The paper contributes to tourism planning studies, to the concept of the Just Destination and to indigenous tourism understanding.     

Residentsʼ attitudes and behavioural support for tourism in host communities

ABSTRACT

In our study of the “perceptions–attitudes–behaviours” sequence, we explain how resident perceptions of tourism’s impacts on host communities influence not only their attitudes towards tourism, but also their attitudes towards tourists – i.e. a new variable that has recently been introduced in literature. Moreover, we introduce the behavioural support, a concept that denotes a higher level of involvement and engagement of residents with their communities in comparison with the traditional attitudinal support. Our results indicate: (1) the residents’ perception of the positive economic and cultural impacts of tourism are the main variables influencing their attitudes towards tourism and tourists; and (2) both types of attitudes influence on behavioural support for tourism in host communities.     

Degrowing tourism: rethinking tourism

Abstract

Concerns with growth have steadily advanced since the Limits to Growth report due particularly to human impacts on the natural environment. Since that time, neoliberal capitalism has become increasingly reliant on growth exacerbating these problems. The destructive outcomes of these strategies has led to a growing interest in degrowth. Analysts are examining how we can create economies that eschew a growth imperative while still supporting human thriving. Tourism as a key facet of capitalism is implicated in these issues and recent concerns with “overtourism” are only one symptom of the problem. This article presents a conceptual consideration of issues of degrowth in tourism. It examines current tensions in international mobility and argues just and sustainable degrowth will require greater attention to equity. This analysis suggests that essential to such an agenda is redefining tourism to focus on the rights of local communities and a rebuilding of the social capacities of tourism. This article argues for the redefinition of tourism in order to place the rights of local communities above the rights of tourists for holidays and the rights of tourism corporates to make profits.     

Contested surf tourism resources in the Maldives

We analyse contests for control of a newly valuable tourism resource, namely surf breaks in the Maldives. Conflicts are shaped by: the resource, economics, culture, legislation, and politics. There are seven stakeholder groups: island resorts, resort-based surfing tourists, live-aboard charter boats, boat-based surfing tourists, local surf-related enterprises, independent travelling surfers using those enterprises, and local resident surfers. We identify a transition from exogenously to endogenously-controlled political processes and power. These are driven by tourism growth, and accelerated by specific trigger events related to political change, land tenure, and development projects. Tourism destinations have seldom been studied in the context of control over natural resources. The transition model constructed here applies across destinations, adventure activities, tourism subsectors, and other industries.     

The evolution of coastal tourism destinations: a path plasticity perspective on tourism urbanisation

Evolutionary and relational approaches to economic development are gaining ground in geography as a discipline, although in the subfield of tourism geography, their potential is only just becoming recognised. This article focuses on the evolution of mature tourism destinations, taking the path dependency concept forward from the notion of path creation into the new domain of path plasticity. Drawing on the notion of cultural political economy, we examine how tourism destinations can break with path dependency routines incrementally and move steadily towards different future paths, which may recast tourism in a different light in the overall “urban” context of the destination. Using a case study of a Mediterranean coastal destination on Catalonia's Costa Daurada, we explore the inter-tangled tourism and urban development processes in relation to the socio-spatial dimensions of urban change. The article argues for a wider range of social and cultural criteria in the analysis of tourism evolution – advocating the use of path plasticity and a cultural political economy approach – to offer an alternative perspective on shifting tourism situations, reflecting the inherently “urbanising” nature of tourism development in the traditional coastal resort context. It adds to the growing literature on governance and strategy-making in sustainable tourism.     

The demand for Mi’kmaw cultural tourism: Tourist perspectives

This paper examines survey findings of tourist interest in Mi’kmaw cultural tourism in Nova Scotia. The results indicate a high interest in Mi’kmaw cultural tourism activities even though most tourists had not participated in Aboriginal tourism before. Further results indicate that tourists’ age, education and place of origin influence their level of interest in particular Mi’kmaw cultural tourism activities. Older tourists had lower interest in activities that required more time and physical activity whereas more-educated tourists had higher interest in participating in particular Mi’kmaw cultural tourism activities. Also, international tourists had the greatest interest in Mi’kmaw cultural tourism, especially activities that involved greater contact with the Mi’kmaw hosts.     

Culture as determinant of the attractiveness of a tourism region

Ritchie, J.R. Brent and Michel Zins, “An Empirical Evaluation of the Role of Culture and its Components as Determinants of the Attractiveness of a Tourism Region,” Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. V, No. 2, April/June 1978, pp. 252–267. This study examines how explicit manifestations of culture are related to the attractiveness of a tourism region. A mail questionnaire was employed to obtain the opinions of managers and functionaries from various sectors of tourism and from different areas of cultural develppment. Survey results were subsequently reviewed by respondents within the framework of discussion workshops. These orkshops provided qualitative enrichment of the quantitative findings and formulated detailed recommendations for tourist development programs.