Factor Substitutability in Australian Manufacturing with Emphasis on Energy Inputs*

In this paper a model of the production structure in the aggregate Australian manufacturing sector is estimated, emphasizing the use this sector makes of energy inputs. A translog cost function is estimated with time-series data for four inputs, capital services, labour services, energy and materials and likewise an energy submodel is estimated for solid fuels, oil, electricity and gas. The substitutabilily and the complementarity relationships between the various factor inputs and between the various fuels are examined: an interesting finding is that capital and energy are substitutes and labour and energy are complements. Factor price elasticities are calculated and turn out to be quite significant. The study concludes that rising energy prices will induce significant shifts in both the mix of fuel inputs and the level of aggregate energy utilization.     

Substitution of labour,capital and energy in the manufacturing sector of Pakistan

Share equations of labour, capital, energy and fuel types, derived from translog cost functions, are estimated by Zellner iterative method to obtain elasticities of labour, capital, energy and fuel types and elasticities of substitution between them. Labour, capital and energy appear as substitutes, natural gas and electricity as complements, and other fuels as substitutes.     

The existence of factor substitution in the primary aluminium industry: A multivariate error-correction approach using Norwegian panel data

This paper presents an econometric analysis of factor demands in the Norwegian primary aluminium industry using annual plant-level panel data. The translog cost function approach is applied, and a multivariate error-correction model of the cost shares of labour, raw materials and electricity is estimated. Capital is assumed tobe quasi-fixed. The hypothesis of fixed input coefficients is rejected for this industry, but the estimated own-price and cross-price elasticities suggest that relative price variations have limited effect on conditional factor demands.     

The Spanish automotive industry: scale economies and input relationships

This paper investigates the existence of economies of scale in the Spanish automobile industry as well as the substitution possibilities between input pairs and the direct and cross price elasticities of demand for the various inputs by estimating a translog cost function for both a three input model involving capital, labour, and intermediate goods as well as a four input model where energy is separated from other intermediate goods. The results of this study are consistent with the hypothesis of economies of scale in the Spanish automobile industry, particularly at the low and mean levels of output. These results also are consistent with the hypothesis that capital is a substitute for the other inputs, but that labour and intermediate goods are complements. Labour and energy also appear to have a complementary relationship over most of the data points in this study. The significance of a complementary relationship between labour and intermediate goods is that any attempt by the Spanish government to restrict imports of these inputs, resulting in higher domestic prices for them, may aggravate an already serious domestic unemployment problem.     

A dynamic econometric model of Thailand manufacturing energy demand

The purpose of this article is to employ the dynamic translog framework to model inter-factor and inter-fuel energy demand for the Thai manufacturing sector. The Denny et al. (1981) and Lynk (1989) framework, which proposes a dynamic adjustment for capital stock is employed to motivate the estimated of factor demand and fuel share equations. Three factors: energy, labour and capital; and five fuel types: fuel oil, diesel oil, liquified petroleum gas (LPG), electricity, and coal and lignite; are examined. Regression diagnostics support the empirical specification. Numerous factor and fuel substitution possibilities are identified, with some policy implications described.     

Interfuel and interfactor substitution in Ontario manufacturing, 1962-82

The extent of substitutability between energy and the other factors (i.e. labour and capital) is an extremely important question and quite central to energy policy, planning and analysis. This paper addresses this question for the Ontario manufacturing sector. The theoretical model utilized in this analysis is the two–stage translog production frontier. The model was estimated for seven manufacturing sectors using four disaggregated energy inputs and labour and capital. The model was estimated by the FIML technique for the period 1962–82.     

Labour and capital saving technical change in telecommunications

The Australian telecommunications sector is being improved and extended through substantial recent investment in intelligent technology such as digital switching, fibre optics, satellite and cellular transmission, and the Internet. These technologies are being progressively integrated with technology from the broadcasting, computer and electronics industries, providing a unified information infrastructure for information transmission and processing. Technological progress embodied in new equipment has the effect of increasing the efficiency of the factors of production. Such efficiency increases can be biased towards a particular factor. For instance, the impact of labour-augmenting technical change is a decline in the cost of labour per unit of production. When such biases are apparent the relativity between the costs of labour and capital per unit of production is changed. In the longer term, technical change can impact on the rate of employment growth and also on the rate of capital accumulation. In this study the Australian telecommunications cost structure is examined for the period 1919 to 1988. To measure labour saving and capital saving technical change a translog cost model is estimated. Multiproduct telecommunications cost studies typically employ the translog cost model (Evans and Heckman, 1984; Roöller, 1990a; 1990b; Shin and Ying, 1992; McKenzie and Small, 1997). The translog model places no a priori restrictions on substitution possibilities among the factors of production, and allows scale economies to vary with the level of output.     

An econometric model of production with endogenous improvement in energy efficiency, 1970-1995

The purpose of this paper is to introduce a modification of a standard four input production process where energy is used in an inefficient way due partly to unnecessary waste of energy. In this production process, R&D investment is an additional input in order to improve energy efficiency. It closes the gap between energy purchased and energy used effectively. The more is invested, the less is the waste of energy. With the cost and benefit of R&D investment incorporated in our model of the firm, we analyse the impact of an energy tax on R&D effort, on output and on the waste of energy. The model is implemented empirically by choosing a translog cost function and a set of first-order conditions, using data for the German chemical industry, 1970-1995. In a simulation study based on higher energy prices we found outsourcing as the consequent reaction of the firm- more material is used and less of energy, labour, and capital, given the unchanged output level. There is no indication of a double dividend in terms of environmental improvement as well as higher demand for labour on the industry level calling for a computable general equilibrium approach in order to answer this open question.     

Carbon mitigation costs for the commercial building sector: Discrete–continuous choice analysis of multifuel energy demand

We estimate a carbon mitigation cost curve for the U.S. commercial sector based on econometric estimation of the responsiveness of fuel demand and equipment choices to energy price changes. The model econometrically estimates fuel demand conditional on fuel choice, which is characterized by a multinomial logit model. Separate estimation of end uses (e.g., heating, cooking) using the U.S. Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey allows for exceptionally detailed estimation of price responsiveness disaggregated by end use and fuel type. We then construct aggregate long-run elasticities, by fuel type, through a series of simulations; own-price elasticities range from −0.9 for district heat services to −2.9 for fuel oil. The simulations form the basis of a marginal cost curve for carbon mitigation, which suggests that a price of $20 per ton of carbon would result in an 8% reduction in commercial carbon emissions, and a price of $100 per ton would result in a 28% reduction.     

PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY: AN ASSESSMENT OF ITS PRODUCTION STRUCTURE*

Cost structure of petroleum refining industry in Kuwait has been examined, with specific focus on factor substitution, and economies of scale and utilisation. This has been done by estimating translog cost functions, both long‐run and short‐run, using annual time‐series data covering the period from 1976 to 1998. The results indicate that the implied production structure is non‐homothetic, and the pattern of scale effect is labour and capital saving but material using. The evidence also supports presence of induced exogenous technical change, which is non‐neutral (labour and capital using, and material saving). The elasticity of substitution between capital and labour is negative, implying that the two inputs are complements. The results also indicate absence of economies and diseconomies of scale in the petroleum refining industry.     

Input substitution in manufacturing for three LDCs: translog estimates and policy implications

Demand and subsititution elasticities from a translog cost model are estimated for the manufacturing sectors of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Conventional formulae for the standard errors of the estimated elasticities are checked by a bootstrap experiment, and their validity is confirmed for the moderate-sized samples of India and Pakistan. The elasticity estimates indicate a high degree of substitutability among capital, labour, and energy resources in manufacturing sectors of these countries. The result yields important policy implications for employment expansion through changing relative resource prices and the ability of these three economies to adjust to energy price shocks without serious impairment to economic growth.     

Empirical evidence regarding electricity consumption and urban economic growth

Links between electricity consumption and economic growth are fairly well documented for national economies, but less so for urban economies. The analysis of such relationships at the sub-national level of aggregation can potentially offer a useful complement to national-level research. This study examines the electricity-growth nexus in El Paso, Texas, while also considering the roles of capital stocks and employment. Testing suggests the presence of cointegrating relationships and a vector error correction model is estimated. Granger causality tests reveal the absence of causality between electricity consumption and personal income, implying that energy conservation efforts will have a neutral effect on economic growth. Furthermore, the results indicate that causality runs from the capital stock and employment to both personal income and electricity consumption. This echoes previous research regarding the importance of accounting for capital and labour factors of production in studies of aggregate electricity utilization and economic performance. The methodology used in this analysis to develop a broad synthetic measure of the urban capital stock, including various categories of public infrastructure, can also be applied to other regions and urban economies.     

THE EFFECTS OF FIRM BOUNDARY AND FINANCING CONSTRAINTS ON UTILITY COSTS: THE CASE OF MUNICIPALLY OWNED ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION UTILITIES

ABSTRACT: A number of studies have examined costs and potential for scale and scope economies in electricity distribution; however, few if any, have examined this area in terms of the unique constraints associated with municipal ownership or historical and regulatory constraints associated with former municipal ownership. This paper focuses on 19 distribution‐only municipally owned utilities for a ten‐year period (1988–97). Distortions from variable outputs but largely fixed inputs are minimized. The data used were collected specifically to assess productivity, cost, and efficiency performance and include value‐based capital inputs and service prices. Outputs include energy conveyed and number of connections; inputs include capital, system losses, labour, and materials. We examine the effect of using third‐party financing (e.g., connection charges), with its inherent principal‐agent problems, on utility costs, as well as the effect of shared services and multi‐utility output (e.g., electricity and water). A translog total cost function is estimated. Our findings suggest significant returns to scope but also significant increases in costs associated with the use of third‐party financing. The results also suggest scale diseconomies. Shared outputs, which have been greatly restricted or eliminated under restructuring, may have provided larger, and now lost, economies than the scale returns blindly pursued by some through restructuring or incented/forced mergers or divestitures. Finally, it is clear that third‐party financing can raise costs; such financing is widely used among utilities providing electricity, gas, water, and telecommunications, and should be closely scrutinized.     

Energy distribution and economic growth

This research examines the physical constraints on the growth process. In order to run, maintain and build capital energy is required to be distributed to geographically dispersed sites where investments are deemed profitable. We capture this aspect of physical reality by a network theory of electricity distribution. The model leads to a supply relation according to which feasible electricity consumption per capita rises with the size of the economy, as measured by capital per capita. Specifically, the relation is a simple power law with an exponent assigned to capital that is bounded between 1/2 and 3/4, depending on the efficiency of the network. Together with an energy conservation equation, capturing instantaneous aggregate demand for electricity, we are able to provide a metabolic-energetic founded law of motion for capital per capita that is mathematically isomorphic to the one emanating from the Solow growth model. Using data for the 50 US states 1960–2000, we examine the determination of growth in electricity consumption per capita and test the model structurally. The model fits the data well. The exponent in the power law connecting capital and electricity is 2/3.     

A cost function analysis of import demand for Nigeria

The article uses a translog cost function to examine the substitution relations among capital, labour and imports. The results show that capital has a substitute relation with domestic labour and import. However, labour and import have complementary relationship. The implication of this finding is that liberalization policies, if pursued vigorously, could impart positively on the demand for labour. In addition, it suggests that economic growth could be enhanced through trade liberalization.     

Deregulation and Subequilibrium in the Australian Dairy Processing Industry

The Australian dairy processing industry is currently undergoing a program of substantial regulatory reform. In this paper we assess the impact of this deregulation on the production and cost systems of the industry. This is undertaken using a translog restricted cost function, for the period 1969 to 1996, with labour, milk and energy as the variable inputs and capital as the one fixed input. We find that this industry has undergone significant changes in terms of factor demand and cost structures associated with the introduction of new technology.     

Outsourcing, Imports and Labour Demand

This paper examines the effects of purchased services and imported intermediate materials on the labour demand for different skills in German manufacturing sectors. We derive and estimate a factor demand system based on the generalised Box–Cox cost function nesting both the normalised quadratic and the translog functional form. We find that the impacts of output and capital growth are more important in explaining the demand for heterogeneous labour than substitution effects between labour and non–labour inputs. Similarly, the increasing use of both imported materials and purchased services is a consequence of output growth rather than input substitution.
JEL classification : J 23; O 33     

Long-run estimates of interfuel and interfactor elasticities

Meta-analyses of interfuel and capital-energy elasticities of substitution show that elasticity estimates are dependent on the type of data − time series, panel, or cross-section − and the estimators used. Econometric theory suggests that the between estimator might generate the best estimates of long-run elasticities but no existing estimates of elasticities of substitution have used it. Alternatively, Chirinko et al. argued in favor of estimating long-run elasticities of substitution using a long-run difference estimator. We provide estimates of China’s interfuel and interfactor elasticities of substitution using the between and long-run difference estimators. To address potential omitted variables bias, we add province level inefficiency and national technological change terms to our regression model. The results show that demand for coal and electricity in China is very inelastic, while demand for diesel and gasoline is elastic. With the exception of gasoline and diesel, there are limited substitution possibilities among the fuels. Substitution possibilities are greater between energy and labor than between energy and capital. The results are quite different to some previous studies for China but coincide well with the patterns found in meta-analyses for long-run estimates of elasticities of substitution.     

Inter-Fuel and Inter-Factor Substitution in NSW Manufacturing Industry*

This paper uses the absolute price version of the Rotterdam model to investigate inter-factor (energy, labour, capital, material), and the inter-fuel (electricity, solid fuel, liquid fuel, gas, other fuel) substitution in NSW manufacturing during the period 1968-69 to 1980-81. Input demand elasticities with respect to input prices and production volume are derived, analyzed and compared with results from previous studies. While generally previous results are confirmed, some divergencies do occur. These are attributed to choice of time period and region.     

Technological progress and factor substitution in the U.S. Textile industry, 1949–1974

Using the translog dual cost function approach, we estimate the elasticity of substitution and the nature of technical change in the U.S. textile industry. A significant extension on the existing studies on this topic is the incorporation of learning by doing as a source of technical change. Our results confirm earlier findings of limited substitution possibilities between capital and labour and that factor argumenting technical change is labour saving and capital using in the Hicksian sense. But this augmentation takes placeboth due to time and learning and further that bias due to the two factors is in the opposite direction.