WAREHOUSES,TRUCKS, AND PM2.5: HUMAN HEALTH AND LOGISTICS INDUSTRY GROWTH IN THE EASTERN INLAND EMPIRE

The eastern Inland Empire of Southern California has experienced dramatic growth of the logistics industry since 2000. This paper analyzes the air pollution implications of that expansion. It is found that truck traffic will generate significant air pollution, especially PM_2.5. The estimated excess mortality associated is 32–64 cases per year, with a combined excess mortality and morbidity value of $247–$455 million per year. This represents 44%–81% of the estimated wages generated by industry growth and $5 million–$9 million per distribution facility. These estimates suggest that policies should be developed to internalize those costs.     

Effectiveness of air pollution standards in reducing mortality in India

India experiences some of the highest air pollution levels globally, with 13 of the 20 most polluted cities in the world. In this paper, we estimate the relationship between air pollution policies in India and mortality for people of all ages and all causes. We estimate the relationship between mortality and two major air pollution regulations, the Supreme Court Action Plan (SCAP) and the Catalytic Converter (CC) policy. Although data for mortality in India have improved over time, the annual average mortality for many districts is volatile, with many outliers and missing values. After addressing these measurement issues in a difference-in-differences setup, we do not find evidence that the policies were effective in significantly reducing mortality. In an effort to understand the potential benefits of reducing pollution levels in India, we investigate the association of different pollution types with mortality. This analysis relies upon relatively recent satellite data on PM_2.5 levels in India. We examine this relationship for India for the first time, using a fixed effects model in an attempt to address issues of endogeneity and measurement error. We find that PM_2.5 levels are positively associated with mortality, with a 10% increase in pollution conditionally associated with a 2.0% increase in the mortality rate.     

VALUING HEALTH EFFECTS: THE CASE OF OZONE AND FINE PARTICLES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

This study presents a conservative estimate of the health benefits that would result from attainment of the federal ozone and fine particle (PM_2.5) standards in the South Coast Air Basin of southern California. A three‐stage approach is used that links pollution exposures to adverse health outcomes to economic values. The annual value of the aggregate health benefits approaches $500 million (with a range of $295–$646 million) for ozone and exceeds $21 billion (with a range of $12.85–$34.22 billion) for fine particles. Such results are useful to regulatory agencies and other policy makers when evaluating the merits of various air pollution reduction strategies. (JEL Q51, Q53)     

Health Damage of Air Pollution: An Estimate of a Dose–Response Relationship for the Netherlands

This paper estimates the dose-response relationship between air pollution and the number of work loss days for the Netherlands. The study is based on illness data (work loss days) for the Dutch labour population and average year concentrations of air pollution in 29 districts. The dose-response relationship has been estimated by means of two different techniques: the ordinary least squares method (OLS) and the one-way fixed-effects method (OWFEM), which we consider to be more adequate. In general health effects are much smaller when OWFEM is applied than if OLS is used. With OWFEM a significant relationship is found between sulphate aerosol (SO₄), ammonia (NH₃) and the number of work loss days (WLDs). Particulates (TSP), O₃ and SO₂ have no significant effect on the number of WLDs. These results differ from those obtained in studies in the United States, which indicate that particulates (TSP) and other small particles, ozone (O₃) and to a lesser extent SO₄ and SO₂ significantly influence the number of WLDs.     

EXTERNAL HEALTH COSTS OF A STEEL MILL

Intermittent operation of a steel mill in a mountain valley in central Utah provides a unique opportunity to measure the external health costs of air pollution. A nearby valley provides a control. This paper analyzes data on hospital admissions and daily deaths for the two valleys, using negative binomial regression models of daily hospital admissions and deaths. Hospital admissions for respiratory diseases increase significantly when the mill is in operation. Mortality also increases during mill operation. Estimated excess hospitalization costs are about 2 million dollars per year, and the increased cost of mortality exceeds 40 million dollars per year.     

It's an ill wind: The effect of fine particulate air pollution on respiratory hospitalizations

While a growing literature in economics has established the harmful health effects of longstanding criteria air pollutants such as ozone and carbon monoxide, fine particulate air pollution is relatively understudied. This paper provides evidence on the harmful effects of fine particulate pollution for Ontario, where municipalities enjoy particulate levels well below US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards and predominantly below Canada‐wide standards. Results provide strong evidence for the detrimental effect of fine particulate pollution for the respiratory health of children, with a one standard deviation change in particulate pollution, leading to a 4% increase in respiratory admissions. While these results inform the stringency of current pollution standards, they also highlight the importance of an international approach to air quality. For instance, the paper also shows that particulate levels in Ontario municipalities are strongly influenced by southerly winds from US jurisdictions, which adhere to more lenient EPA standards.     

Ozone pollution and farm profits in England and Wales

Tropospheric ozone is an air pollutant known to adversely affect crop yields across Europe. Experimental work is underway to quantify yield effects at ambient ozone levels for a number of crops. In this article, we undertake direct, farm-level evaluation of the impact of ozone by estimating a multi-output profit function using a panel dataset of cereal farms in England and Wales. A system of equations, comprising the profit function, input and output share equations is estimated using a fixed-effects seemingly unrelated regression technique, with ozone as a quasi-fixed input. Estimated parameters are used to calculate tropospheric ozone-related profit and output supply elasticities. The main findings from the profit function show that a 10% increase in average ozone levels would decrease variable profits by 1.3% and wheat output supply by 1%. These results are of a significantly lower magnitude, but qualitatively consistent with findings from similar studies carried out in North America.     

The politics of pollution: party regimes and air quality in Canada

Abstract. Environmental concerns often figure prominently in opinion polls. But do election outcomes actually affect the environment? I test the influence of the party in power on urban air pollution in 13 Canadian cities. The government's political stripe is not reliably associated with positive or negative effects on air pollution. Provincial parties on both the right and the left are associated with elevated levels of some air contaminants. Federal effects also go in contrasting directions. Overall it appears a change in government is unlikely to be a reliable predictor of changes in air pollution. JEL classification: Q51, Q58, D78     

Changes in the Distribution of Air Pollution Exposure in the Los Angeles Basin from 1990 to 1999

This research assesses changes in the patterns of ozone and particulate concentrations and the associations of these pollutants with socioeconomic factors from 1990 to 1999 in the South Coast Air Basin of California. The results are somewhat different in 1999 than in 1990 and suggest that demographic changes, in concert with changes in emissions and resulting air pollution patterns, determine the pattern of air pollution exposure and how exposure changes over time. (JEL)     

Air Pollution and Sick-leaves

During the last decade an increasing amount of studies have investigatedthe relationship between air pollution and human health effects. In thisstudy we investigate how these effects in turn induce reduced labourproductivity in terms of sick-leaves, which is an important factor inassessment of air pollution costs in urban areas. For this purpose weemploy a logit model along with data on sick-leaves from a large office inOslo and different air pollutants. Our results indicate that sick-leaves aresignificantly associated with particulate matter (PM₁₀), while theassociations with SO₂ and NO₂, are more ambiguous. We also tryto estimate the induced social costs in terms of lost labour productivity andincreased governmental expenditures, although these estimates are moreuncertain.     

Critical factors in computing externalities for electricity resources

The New York State Environmental Externalities Cost Study and computerized externality model (EXMOD) are used to examine the specification of methods design and application factors in the computation of electricity externalities. We report the sensitivity of externality estimates with alternative specifications for 15 different factors in the analysis, including the selection of facility type, site, and operating characteristics; air emission assumptions and air modeling procedures; dose-response assumptions; economic valuation assumptions; and other modeling procedures and assumptions. Many of the factors that most influence externality computations can be well specified in the analysis, such as the facility type, age, characteristics, emission rates, whether there is SO₂ trading, and the inclusion of long range impacts. Most significant among the factors for which there remains significant scientific uncertainty are the selection and application of air dispersion models, selection of air pollution thresholds for health impacts, reduced life span risks associated with ozone exposure and with long-term exposure to PM₁₀, values for CO₂ damages, and the value to be applied to increased risks of reduced life span for individuals age 65 or older.     

Health and Economic Impact of Air Pollution in Jakarta

Jakarta is one of the most polluted cities in the world. Air pollution in Jakarta is above the safe limits specified by the World Health Organization. It is estimated that the health cost of Jakarta's air pollution in 1999 reached $US220 million. In 2001 the government planned to launch a program to control vehicle emissions. This paper aims to estimate economic impact of this program. To achieve this goal, the paper estimates the economic costs of air pollution in Jakarta for the year 2015 with and without the program.     

Economic Valuation of Ozone-Related School Absences in the South Coast Air Basin of California

Air quality in the South Coast Air Basin of southern California has improved significantly over the past decade, although pollution levels continue to exceed health-based standards on a significant number of days. This study estimates the decline in ozone-related school absences in southern California over the 1990s, reported as differences in the number of days of respiratory illness–related absences, the number of days of all illness-related absences, and the economic loss to families of those absences. The study reports differences in the number of these effects for the intervals 1990–92 to 1997–99, for rolling three-year intervals to 1997–99 across that period, and for expected future reductions in ozone. The baseline population is the cohort aged 5–18 residing in the South Coast Air Basin in 1998. For the interval 1990–92 to 1997–99, the economic value of fewer school absences ranges from $156 million annually to more than $330 million annually, with a best estimate of $245 million. This represents a benefit of nearly $75, on average, for every school-age child in the region. (JEL I10 , I12 , Q2 , Q25 )     

The Effect of Risk Context on the Value of a Statistical Life: a Bayesian Meta-model

This paper presents the first value of statistical life (VSL) meta-analysis that empirically estimates correction factors for ‘out of context’ benefits transfer (BT) purposes. In the field of mortality risk reductions elicited willingness to pay values in one risk context, say road safety, are frequently applied in other risk contexts like air pollution. However, differences in risk perception and the population at risk across contexts are likely to result in diverging VSL estimates. In a meta-analysis of 26 international stated preference studies, a Bayesian model is estimated regressing contingent values for mortality risk reductions, originating from three different risk contexts, on the characteristics of the risk reduction itself and additional variables characterizing the underlying studies. A willingness to pay (WTP) premium for mortality risk reductions in the air pollution and general mortality risk context relative to improving road safety is observed. Evaluated at the mean, road safety VSL estimates should be multiplied by a factor 1.8 before being applicable in the air pollution context. Moreover, in an illustrative BT exercise we find limited overlap in the set of context specific predictive VSL distributions. Consequently, ‘out of context’ BT results in a substantial over- or underestimation of the VSL.     

洛杉矶的雾霾治理及其启示

1943年美国发生了著名的"洛杉矶雾霾"事件,直到20世纪70年代,该市区还被称为"美国烟雾城"。洛杉矶雾霾夏天主要起因于臭氧,冬天主要是源于细微颗粒物等。洛杉矶在治理雾霾方面的主要做法包括立法、排污许可证制度、推广先进环保技术、建立排污交易机制和成立跨部门专门机构等,其治理工作取得了明显成效:2012年,加州达到"不健康空气"水平的日子比2000年减少了约74%。我国治理雾霾,应更加重视空气污染的长期性预测分析,引入市场机制,成立跨地区的空气污染治理机构,同时,加强中美间环保科技的国际合作。     

Cost Benefit Analysis of European Air Quality Targets for Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide and Fine and Suspended Particulate Matter in Cities

The European Commission has proposed air quality standards for NO₂, SO₂ and PM₁₀ to be in force by 2010. The present paper presents a study that gauged their costs and benefits. An analysis of the expected emissions for 2010 (reference emission scenario), using simplified air quality models, showed that non-compliance with these standards will occur in cities only, not in rural areas. Most compliance problems are expected for PM₁₀, least for SO₂. Central estimates of the costs to meet standards range from 21 MECU (SO₂), to 79 MECU (NO₂) to 87--225 MECU (PM₁₀). The estimated benefits are 83--3783 MECU (SO₂), 408--5900 MECU (NO₂), and 5007--51247 MECU (PM₁₀). Uncertainties are high, due to errors and incertitude in various steps of the methodology, mainly the estimation of the human health effects, in particular effects on mortality, and in the valuation of a statistical life. In the case of PM₁₀, additional uncertainty results from the small size of the air quality database. Notwithstanding the uncertainties, the indications are that the benefits exceed the costs.     

Openness and the Environmental Kuznets Curve: Evidence from China

This paper investigates the relationship in China between trade, growth and emissions using provincial-level data for water (chemical oxygen demand: COD) and air (sulphur dioxide: SO₂). It analyses the period 1990–2007 in three steps. First, the income ‘turning point’ of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) has been estimated using quadratic log function and obtained a turning point consistent with existing studies. Second, adopting Dean's (2002) simultaneous equations system, the relationships between trade, growth and emissions has been estimated and the results confirm the dominance of scale effects over technique effects. Third, the estimated per capita turning point for EKC is used to split the provincial industrial database into two groups (below and above turning point income) and simultaneous equations are estimated separately for them. The split sample provided limited support for the trade-induced emissions hypothesis for COD, but not for SO_2. At the provincial level rising incomes via increased levels of international trade were associated with falling COD due to the technique effect, so that rising incomes among the provinces tended to be associated with lower emissions. Stricter environmental regulations are required for growing incomes because they may encourage better production techniques.     

Political Blue Sky: Evidence from the Local Annual “Two Sessions” in China

During politically sensitive periods, Chinese governments tend to take urgent administrative measures to control air pollution creating the temporary political blue sky. This empirical study uses the case of local "two sessions", one of the most politically sensitive periods in localities and examines the daily air quality index (AQI) as well as concentration data of air pollution components, including PM2.5, PM10, SO₂, CO, NO₂ and O₃ of 319 cities in China from November 2013 to June 2018. Results show that AQI decreases by approximately 4.5% during local "two sessions" periods compared to non- “two sessions” periods. Air quality improvements are mainly reflected in visible pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10 and SO₂. The mitigation of NO₂ and O₃, which is not observable by public, is not significant. In addition, the empirical results indicate that air quality deteriorates dramatically after the "two sessions". Therefore, the political blue sky comes with the price of catching up pollution that occurs after the political events.     

Life satisfaction and air quality in London

A growing body of research in economics concerns self-reported happiness, or life satisfaction (LS), and its relationship to a wide range of other variables. The findings of this research tend to highlight the importance of non-income aspects of individuals' life conditions.These findings are strongly complementary to themes within the sustainable development discourse. Firstly, they suggest ways in which we might consume less without compromising on our current levels of LS. And secondly, they help demonstrate the immediate LS benefits that could be gained from higher levels of environmental quality (EQ). However, the empirical evidence for the link between EQ and LS is, to date, somewhat weak, due in part to a lack of EQ data at a level of detail to match the individual-by-individual resolution of LS measures.This small, exploratory study therefore seeks to assess how the use of EQ data at very high spatial resolution could advance the empirical literature examining connections between LS and EQ levels, focusing on air quality in particular. It collects original survey data for approximately 400 Londoners, and uses geographical information system (GIS) software to calculate pollutant concentrations in the immediate vicinity of their homes. It uses this data to estimate maximum likelihood regression models explaining LS ratings in terms of a range of individual, household and local variables.Both perceived and measured air pollution levels are significantly negatively associated with the LS of the survey respondents, even when controlling for a wide range of other effects. An increase of 10 μg/m³ in annual mean nitrogen dioxide concentration appears to correspond on average to a drop of nearly half a point of LS on an 11-point rating scale.These findings cannot yet be generalised with confidence. However, if they were confirmed by larger future studies, they would appear to strengthen and extend existing arguments in favour of policies to reduce urban air pollution, framed both in terms of conventional economic efficiency analyses, and in wider political and ethical (and potentially legal) terms.