International briefing 6: Training and development in the United States

Increasingly, training and development is playing an important and strategic role in the economic success of US organisations (Marquardt, 1999, Tannenbaum and Yukl, 1992). US organisations recognise that they now operate in a new global economy, an economy which involves the use of advanced technologies and increased responsiveness to customers’ needs. It is becoming one that requires greater and greater innovation and flexibility in production, service delivery and market know‐how. American firms realise more than ever that employee knowledge gained through training and development has become a strategic necessity and more and more the source of strategic advantage (Drucker, 1994).     

Deregulation of trucking in the United States — Implications for consumers

The purpose of this paper is to examine the history of motor carrier regulation in the United States and to assess the potential benefits and costs to consumers from deregulation of trucking in 1980. Benefits are based on the impact of increased competition and changes in operating restrictions on rates and logistics cost savings while costs are based on changes in highway safety due to the impact of deregulation on truck maintenance, truck driver behavior, and changes in the motor vehicle mix.The results of this study indicate that the partial deregulation of trucking in 1980 entailed considerable benefits due to the relaxation of entry restrictions and changes in operating restrictions. Average annual logistics cost savings were $38 billion from 1981 to 1986. It was concluded that the direct effect of deregulation on highway safety was favorable indicating that truck safety and truck driver behavior had improved under deregulation. However, deregulation had a positive effect on the proportion of miles driven by trucks which, in turn, had a positive effect on fatality rates. Thus, the indirect effect of deregulation was unfavorable. These results suggest that the driving environment, rather than the truck or truck driver, may play a major role in highway safety under deregulation. The need to monitor the adequacy of the existing road system is also reinforced by recent increases in the speed limit from 55 mph to 65 mph in many states.

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Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag versucht, die Entstehung der staatlichen Regulierung des motorisierten Transportwesens in den USA aufzuzeigen und die seit etwa 1980 einsetzende Deregulierung des Fernlastverkehrs danach zu beurteilen, welche Vorteile und Nachteile sie für die Verbraucher gebracht hat. Vorteile können sich aus der Wirkung verbesserten Wettbewerbs und geänderter Betriebseinschränkungen auf Gebühren und Transportkosten ergeben. Nachteile können aus Veränderungen der Straßensicherheit wegen schlechterer Fahrzeugwartung oder wegen Verhaltensänderungen bei LKW-Fahrern resultieren.Die Ergebnisse einer Analyse von Zeitreihendaten der Jahre 1957 bis 1986 machen deutlich, daß die teilweise Deregulierung des Fernlastverkehrs im Jahre 1980 durch die Lockerung von Zulassungsbeschränkungen und durch die Änderung von Betriebseinschränkungen beachtlichen Nutzen mit sich brachte. Von 1981 bis 1986 ergab sich bei den Transportkosten eine durchschnittliche Jahresersparnis von 38 Milliarden Dollar. Entgegen den Erwartungen dürfte sich die Deregulierung auch positiv auf die Straßensicherheit ausgewirkt haben, sofern man die Fahrzeugsicherheit und die Verbesserung des Fahrerverhaltens als Indikator dafür ansieht. Gleichzeitig jedoch hatte die Deregulierung auch einen förderlichen Effekt auf die Fahrleistung der Lastwagen, was wiederum die Unfallzahlen erhöhte. Den zuerstgenannten positiven direkten Effekten der Deregulierung stehen somit diese negativen indirekten Einflüsse gegenüber. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, daß es eher die äußeren Fahrbedingungen und nicht so sehr die Lastwagen selber oder die Fahrer und ihr Verhalten sind, die bei der Fahrsicherheit insgesamt die Hauptrolle spielen. Beispielsweise macht es die in vielen US-Bundesstaaten angehobene Geschwindigkeitsbeschränkung von 55 auf 65 Meilen pro Stunde verstärkt notwendig, die Eignung des bestehenden Straßensytems zu überwachen.

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Rachel Dardis is a Professor at the Department of Textiles and Consumer Economics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA. Janet Garkey is a public Responsibility associate at the American Express Company, New York, New York, and Zhiming Zhang is a graduate assistant at the same Department.The publication is article number A-4877 of the University of Maryland Agriculture Experiment Station.The authors are indebted to an anonymous reviewer for his helpful comments and in particular for his suggestions concerning the statistical model used in the analysis of highway safety.     

英美国家的年龄歧视问题:表现、解决途径及对我国的启示

年龄歧视是对传统孝道的彻底否定.这一问题在西方国家由来已久,受到了较多的关注.近些年来英美等发达国家在立法和政策上出台了一系列解决措施,获得了一定的成效,但是年龄歧视现象依然存在.我国虽然传统文化中有尊老的传统,但是随着社会发展和社会转型的加快,对年长者的歧视在社会各个领域有所增加,甚至在某些方面表现有愈演愈烈之势和出现新的特点,对社会发展、和谐社会的建设产生了负面影响.对年龄歧视概念作出了明确的界定,对当代欧美国家年龄歧视的表现、解决的措施作了回顾和分析,提出了对我国的几点启示.     

Corporate Social Responsibility and Firm Productivity: Evidence from the Chemical Industry in the United States

We examined cynicism as a mediator of the influence of managers’ mission-congruent communication and behavior about ethical standards (a form of supervisory behavioral integrity) on employee attitudes and intended behavior. Results indicated that cynicism partially mediates the relationship between supervisory behavioral integrity and organizational commitment, but not the relationship between supervisory behavioral integrity and intent to comply with organizational expectations for employee conduct.     

Segmenting Green Consumers in the United States: Implications for Green Marketing

The purpose of the current study was to segment U.S. consumers into four distinct clusters based on their beliefs and motives regarding pro-environmental consumer behavior. Using a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults from Experian Simmons (N = 22,348), this study revealed that: (a) there are four clusters of consumers in the United States with a unique set of beliefs and motives regarding consumer environmentalism; (b) the clusters have distinct demographic and media usage profiles; and (c) the groups have varying responses to the industry's initiatives to protect the environment. Implications of the research are discussed in light of developing message and media strategies for green marketing.     

美国资产证券化的发展及中国的借鉴

20世纪70年代以来,资产证券化在美国呈现加速发展的趋势.住房按揭贷款支持证券以及由此派生出来的大量衍生金融工具的迅速发展,不仅推动了美国房地产市场的繁荣,也极大地促进了国际金融市场的发展.然而,美国次贷危机表明,必须高度重视资产证券化的风险管理,防止金融衍生工具的滥用.中国要从美国资产证券化的发展历程中借鉴经验,吸取教训,加强风险管理,促进资产证券化的稳健发展.     

Dynamic Benchmarking of Mass Transit Systems in the United States Using Data Envelopment Analysis and the Malmquist Productivity Index

For more than five decades, the federal, state, and local governments have subsidized mass transit systems through sales, gasoline, and property taxes with an expectation that it would improve mobility to low‐income citizens, reduce carbon footprints and traffic congestion, and facilitate regional economic growth. However, in times of financial crisis and chronic government budget deficits, the inefficient use of a mass transit system can increase public outcry over the wasteful spending of government funds and taxpayers’ monies. To find ways to utilize mass transit systems more efficiently across the United States, this paper aimed to identify the benchmark transit practices that every mass transit system can emulate and then continuously improve its performance. To achieve these goals, this paper analyzed the multiple years of past performances of 262 mass transit agencies in the United States using data envelopment analysis and the Malmquist productivity index and then provided practical guidelines for enhancing mass transit efficiency.     

Dynamics of Stakeholders’ Implications in the Institutionalization of the CSR Field in France and in the United States

This study supports the idea that fields form around issues, and describes the roles of various stakeholders in the structuring, shaping, and legitimating of the emerging field of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). A model of the institutional history of the CSR field is outlined, of which a key stage is the appearance of CSR rating agencies as the significant players and Institutional Entrepreneurs of the field. We show to which extent the creation and further development of CSR rating agencies, and the activism of other significant stakeholders of the field (typically portrayed as “standard setters” and “regulatory agents”), contribute to the institutionalization of CSR. With this in mind, among various stakeholders that legitimate the field of CSR, we present the efforts of global and local stakeholders such as the European Union, the United Nations, the International Organization for Standardization, and governments and their interactions. We suggest that the different paths of CSR development and institutionalization in France and in the United States depend on the nature of local and global stakeholders’ involvement in this process and their interactions.     

The demand for small cars in the United States: Implications for energy conservation strategies

The purpose of this paper was to investigate the impact of household characteristics and preferences for Japanese cars on the demand for small cars in the United States. Two stage probit analysis was used to examine the impact of various explanatory variables on the purchase decision. The results indicated that preferences for Japanese cars, income, price and several household characteristics had a significant impact on the probability of purchasing a small car. The results of this study provide support for freer trade in automobiles and higher gasoline taxes as energy conservation strategies.

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Zusammenfassung Die Nachfrage nach Kleinwagen in USA: Implikationen für Strategien zur Energieeinsparung. Diese Untersuchung wollte herausfinden, wie sich Haushaltseigenschaften und Präferenzen für japanische Autos auf die Nachfrage nach Kleinwagen in den Vereinigten Staaten auswirken. Die Stichprobe umfa\te 367 Haushalte, die im Jahr 1986 ein neues Auto kauften. Davon kauften 141 Haushalte amerikanische Kleinwagen, 84 japanische Kleinwagen und 142 Haushalte kauften gro\e amerikanische Wagen. Eine zweistufige Probit-Analyse prüfte den Einflu\ der verschiedenen Erklärungsvariablen auf die Kaufentscheidung. Die Ergebnisse besagen im wesentlichen, da\ es die Präferenzen für japanische Autos, das Einkommen, der Preis und einige Haushaltseigenschaften sind, die einen signifikanten Einflu\ auf die Wahrscheinlichkeit eines Kleinwagenkaufs haben. Die Autoren sehen in den Ergebnissen eine Unterstützung für die Forderung nach Freihandel im Automobilsektor und nach höherer Besteuerung von Kraftstoffen als Strategien zur Energieeinsparung.

     

国际政治经济视角下美国对外贸易政策的分析

美国是当今世界贸易大国,它的对外贸易政策对我国经济发展有举足轻重的影响。深刻理解美国对外贸易政策有着重要意义。本文从美国的全球战略、政治因素和国际政治经济因素三个角度分析了美国对外贸易政策的本质,从而得出结论,美国对外贸易政策的目的是实现美国的国家利益。     

Corporate Community Contributions in the United Kingdom and the United States

We address the issue of UK firms relatively poor record of corporate community contributions (CCCs) by subjecting them to formal comparison with those of US firms. To this end, we employ data on the top 100 UK, and top 100 US, contributors in 2001. Cross-country differences are described and discussed with reference to a stakeholder perspective on corporate social responsibility, and CCCs in particular. In this connection, we evaluate the role played by the sectoral composition of activities, as well as national, cultural and institutional factors. Our findings highlight a number of significant cross-country differences in the pattern of CCCs and suggest that UK and US firms operate within significantly different stakeholder environments.JEL Classification: M14Stephen Brammer is a Lecturer in Business Economics at University of Bath, with research interests in the area of corporate social responsibility. Much of his recent research has examined the stimuli for corporate socially responsive behaviour, the management of business social responsibilities, and the relationships between firm social performance and other dimensions of corporate performance. Recent publications include articles in the Journal of Management Studies, the European Management Journal and Business Ethics: A European Review.Stephen Pavelin is a Lecturer in Economics at the University of Reading, with research interests in foreign direct investment and corporate social responsibility. His current research agenda seeks to address: the effect of corporate social performance on the reputations and financial performance of firms; the incidence and quality of social and environmental reporting; demographic diversity (regarding gender and ethnicity) among corporate boards; and the effect of firms geographical diversification on their social performance. Recent publications include articles in the International Journal of Industrial Organisation, the Open Economies Review, the European Management Journal and Business Ethics: A European Review.     

Proprietorship and unemployment in the United States

Unemployment and proprietorship can be related in several ways. As unemployment increases, individuals with fewer job alternatives may choose to start their own business resulting in an increase in proprietorship. Alternatively, if an increase in unemployment is the result of a depressed economy, higher unemployment may lead to less demand for the products and services of proprietors, thus reducing proprietorship. Finally, greater proprietorship may lead to future increases in employment as these businesses grow. This can potentially reduce unemployment in the long run. We apply a panel vector autoregressive model to unemployment and proprietorship data from the U.S. states for the years 1976 to 2009 to examine if these effects are apparent in the data. We find that unemployment Granger causes proprietorship, but proprietorship does not Granger cause unemployment.     

Economics in Europe and the United States

Abstract

Business disciplines, including international business, are influenced by economics. This paper examines the facilitating role played by the English language in the dissemination of works in economics and attempts to show that authors who use English gain significant advantage over others. A look into the backgrounds of Nobel Prize winning economists and the predominance of American and British journals lend support to this view. Also, the overwhelming influence of quantitative neo-classical economics, which has gained great strength in the United States, seems to spread to the rest of the world. Still, international business is markedly different from economics not only in content but also in its relationship with other social sciences.