Wage differentials between urban and rural-urban migrant workers in China

Since the end of the 1980s, the number of migrants working in the urban labor market has increased dramatically. However, migrant workers are treated differently from urban workers. In this paper we examine the labor market discrimination against rural migrants from the point of view of wage differentials using CHIP-2007 data. We apply Jann pooled method to deal with index number problem and use Heckman two step model to correct selection problem when decomposing the wage gap. The decomposition results show that a significant difference in wage gains persists between the two groups as late as 2007. In 2007 migrants only earned 49% of urban workers' income and 17% of the wage gap cannot be explained by observed factors. In detail, differences in educational attainment, work experience and distribution across industry, occupation, and ownership of enterprises account for most of the explained wage gap.     

The impact of migration and remittances on labor supply in Tajikistan

Remittances from labor migrants abroad have become the largest component of financial flows to developing countries. While they are an important source of foreign currency for low-income countries, the impact of outmigration and remittances on the economic development of the sending country is ambiguous. To narrow this knowledge gap, this paper examines their impact on the domestic labor market, using the case of Tajikistan – a labor migrant contributor and remittance dependent country in Central Asia. Specifically, we estimate the impact of international migration and receipt of remittances on the labor supply decisions and employment of the family members left behind. To ensure rigorous inferences, we apply a control function approach using unique high-frequency household panel data. Our method enables us to correctly address the simultaneity of migration/remittance and labor supply decisions of the left-behind members. Our main estimates are that sending migrants reduces the labor supply of the left-behind members by 5.4 percentage points, and that receiving remittances reduces it by 10.2 percentage points, respectively. These findings suggest that the reservation wage effect of having a migrant member and receiving remittances is large and surpasses other positive effects they might have.     

Internal migration and external benefit: The impact of labor migration on the wage structure in urban China

China provides a unique experience of massive internal (within-country) migration but with high segregation of jobs between migrants and natives. Thus, migration has a complementary external effect on native wages: the elasticities of complementarity of migrants are about 31.7%, 20.3%, and 19.9% for native workers with a college, high school and less than high school education, respectively. After the wage is deflated by the housing price, the elasticities decline to 11%, 8.2% and −4.4% for the respective education groups, which provides the lower-bound analysis results. In addition, migration has widened wage dispersion, as well as increasing the education premium and residual inequality. The elasticity of substitution in jobs between migrants and natives is very low due to the hukou restriction, and increasing proportions of migrants in any given labor force widen the migrant/native wage gap. Job segregation is an important factor that explains particular labor market findings in China.     

Return migration and Hukou registration constraints in Chinese cities

This paper documents the patterns of return migration and labor mobility constraints in China using two unique data: the 2017 China Household Finance Survey and a newly developed urban Hukou registration index. The size of return migrants is larger than that of migrants without local Hukou registration. Majority of return migrants move from more developed region back to their less developed home town where they have Hukou registration. Empirical results show that Hukou registration barrier, typically higher in more developed cities, leads to a higher probability of returning among low-skilled migrant workers, and such an effect only exits among migrants moving across provinces and migrants with rural Hukou.     

城乡人口空间迁移模式的比较研究

农村移民过度集聚不利于城市化可持续发展。文章利用第六次全国人口普查数据的研究结果显示,农村移民表现出显著的单向迁移特征,空间分布高度集中化。但城镇移民双向迁移特征更为明显,空间分布更为均衡。从劳动力市场条件的角度解释认为:户籍制度约束使得农村人口迁移仅基于经济因素考虑,因而空间集聚度很高。而城镇人口由于能够免受此类约束,迁移决策不仅基于经济因素,而且基于社会、文化、环境等多因素考虑,因而空间分布更为均衡。文章认为,建立一种相对均衡的农村移民空间迁移模式,关键是要彻底改革户籍制度,使农村移民享有与城镇居民同等的公共服务获取权。     

我国农民工劳动合约签订率低的原因分析——基于劳动力市场分割和产业分割的分析框架

劳动合约签订是劳动保护的重要形式,但我国农民工劳动合约签订率却只是在2008年《劳动合同法》实施后有暂时较大幅度的上扬,此后随时间推移却几近停滞。文章以劳动力市场分割和产业分割框架为基础,构建了不同劳动力市场特征和产业组织特征组合的四象限分析框架,探讨了不同象限中劳动合约的运行机制,并结合我国边缘产业和农民工现状,就劳动合约签订问题建立了一个简单的博弈模型。分析得出,在边缘产业与次级劳动力市场的组合下,农民工劳动合约签订存在着"组织失灵"、"市场失灵"和"政府失灵"三重困境,这是我国农民工劳动合同签约率停滞不前的主要原因。文章最后提出了相应的结论和政策建议。     

Solution to the Dilemma of the Migrant Labor Shortage and the Rural Labor Surplus in China

Since 2003, China＇s labor market has been facing two coexisting crises： a rural labor surplus and a severe shortage of migrant labor Using data from the 2000 China Health and Nutrition Survey questionnaire, which covers 288 villages in 36 counties, this paper attempts to find a solution to this dilemma. Specifically, a multinomial logit model, a Mincer- type model and a probit model are applied to examine the effect of educational level on the employment choices for rural laborers, and on the wages and the employment status of migrants. Based on the results of our analysis, we propose the implementation of policy aimed at increasing the educational level of rural dwellers, in conjunction with other policies to eliminate all artificial barriers, to facilitate the migration of rural laborers.     

Identifying the effects of migration on parental health: Evidence from left-behind elders in China

This study pioneers the application of the New Economics of Labor Migration theory to outline and estimate two opposite effects of labor loss driven by the migration and remittances of adult children on the health of left-behind elderly parents through the changing rural market constraints. We use China's rural household survey data and simultaneous equation econometric techniques to estimate the effects of migration on the physical and mental health of left-behind elders. Results indicate that the loss of labor due to migration has a significantly negative effect on the health of left-behind elders, but remittances from migrants can compensate for the adverse effect. This study provides a comprehensive understanding that remittances from migration relax the constraints on household resource allocations in undeveloped rural areas with imperfect market conditions. Overall, left-behind elderly parents benefit from migrant children both physically and mentally.     

Can self-employment activity contribute to ascension to urban citizenship? Evidence from rural-to-urban migrant workers in China

The ascension to urban citizenship and assimilation into urban life for rural to urban migrant workers is a pressing mission during the current process of rapid urbanization in developing China. However, the issue of how self-employed migrants, who account for up to 25 percent of total migrant workers in 2009 (Meng, 2012), acquire urban citizenship remains understudied. Using a unique sample from the 2009 Rural to Urban Migrants in China (RUMiC) survey, this paper explores whether self-employment choice contributes to migrant workers' ascension to urban citizenship and integration, and uncovers the underlying mechanisms. We find that although self-employed migrants are capable of earning a higher income, and improving their living conditions, their tendency to reside permanently in the city is not significantly different from their counterparts of wage workers. We argue that self-employed migrants, who are less covered by urban social securities and are more discriminated against by current urban household registration (Hukou) system, tend to lose faith in ascension to urban citizenship. It implies that a social security system with self-employed migrants being covered as well as an urban Hukou admission system favoring diverse human capital (especially taking into account entrepreneurship) would help accelerate the urbanization process.     

Wage increases, wage convergence, and the Lewis turning point in China

We examine the wage trends of ordinary workers and the wage convergence between unskilled and skilled workers in China. First, we find that wages in all non-agricultural sectors, wages of migrant workers, and wages of hired workers in the agricultural sector have increased dramatically since 2003. Second, through comparing wage differentials between migrant and urban resident workers and between heterogeneous education groups within migrant workers, and by investigating the changes in the contribution of the returns to education to wage differentials, we find that the wages of unskilled and skilled workers have converged. Both the increasing wage trends and wage convergence are interpreted as evidence supporting the hypothesis that China has passed what can be called the Lewis turning point in the industrial sector. We conclude that the sustainability of economic growth in China requires an upgrading of labor market institutions to accommodate the merging of the rural and urban labor forces.     

The role of politics in the migration of Zimbabwean teachers to South Africa

This paper contributes to the debate on the role played by the political crisis in Zimbabwe in causing teacher migration to South Africa in the presence of other social and economic drivers. The paper uses data collected through a questionnaire self-administered by 100 Zimbabwean teachers in South Africa (migrants) and another 100 in Zimbabwe (non-migrants). In-depth interviews with a few migrant teachers were used to supplement these data. Although it was the second most mentioned reason for the teachers' migration to South Africa, the role played by political violence or repression in Zimbabwe in causing this migration should not be downplayed. Most migrant teachers came from Zimbabwean schools affected by political violence to a large extent before or after the 2008 presidential elections, especially rural areas. Teachers that held positions or distributed opposition party regalia were mostly displaced by violence. There is an urgent need for political transformation to more democratic rule in Zimbabwe.     

Moving to the right place at the right time: Economic effects on migrants of the Manchuria Plague of 1910–11

How do initial arrival conditions in a host locality affect migrants’ subsequent economic welfare? Manchuria (Northeast China), which attracted millions of migrants from North China during the first half of the twentieth century, experienced a devastating pneumonic plague outbreak in 1910–11. Using data from a rural household survey in the mid-1930s, we explore how the post-plague conditions in various villages affected migrant cohorts’ long-term wealth accumulation. We find that the migrant households that moved to plague-hit villages soon after the plague ended prospered the most: they owned at least 112% more land than migrant households that either moved elsewhere or migrated to the same village before or long after the plague outbreak. Our results are robust after controlling for factors that influence the long-term wealth accumulation of migrants and are not caused by selection.     

Did the Early A8 In-migrants to England go to Areas of Labour Shortage?

This paper analyses the local incidence across England of migration flows from the eight Accession (A8) countries of east and central Europe immediately following the 2004 expansion of the European Union. It examines not only the total inflow of A8 migrants but also the three largest nationality groups, as well as three large groups defined by the type of job they gained. The distributions of these migrant groups are related to labour market conditions to see how far migrants were attracted to areas with tight labour supply. Migrant group distributions are modelled to take into account other potential drivers such as the patterns of earlier migrant populations. Datasets on the A8 migrants have limitations, and these are noted because policy development may be hindered as a result.     

The demand for labor in Caribbean community MDCs

This article presents a comparative analysis of labor market demand in the three major economies of the Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) in the period since 1970. The regression analysis indicates that the manufacturing sectors in Barbados and Jamaica were more responsive to changing domestic and international market conditions than the agricultural sectors, or than the Trinidad & Tobago manufacturing sector. Other important conclusions based on specifications at the aggregate level are that the real wage explained labor demand only in Jamaica, and that there was a secular increase in the demand for labor in both Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago, even after wages and output were controlled for. Taken in conjunction with the other findings for Trinidad & Tobago, we conclude that there is a need to focus on other sectors as important employers of labor in the period under analysis.     

【广东视点】新生代农民工需求层次变化与劳资冲突行为选择——来自佛山的经验证据

结合马斯洛的需求层次理论,文章拟用佛山数据研究新生代农民工需求层次变化及其劳资冲突行为选择。研究发现生存、发展和精神三个层次的渐进需求均对珠三角地区新生代农民工劳资冲突行为选择存在显著影响：对生存需求和发展需求的满足程度越低,珠三角地区新生代农民工越倾向于选择集体停工等激烈的劳资冲突行为;具有精神价值需求的新生代农民工倾向于选择合法维权等温和的劳资冲突行为。对三大需求的比较分析发现,生存需求中的工资收入变量对劳资冲突行为选择的影响最为显著,其次是精神价值需求中的法治平等意识变量,而发展需求变量组的影响系数最小。这说明基本的生存需求对新生代农民工的劳资冲突行为选择依然具有最大影响力,但与上一代农民工不同的是,法治平等等精神价值需求在新生代农民工劳资冲突行为选择中的作用正在凸显。     

Do migrants get stuck in the informal sector? Findings from a household survey in four Indonesian cities

This article compares labour-market outcomes for individuals in migrant and non-migrant households in Indonesia. It introduces two new work-status groups – small-business operators and formal-casual or contract employees – in an effort to transcend the usual formal–informal distinction. We find that long-term migrants (LTMs) tend to gravitate to the small-business sector and to jobs with regular wages, whereas recent and very recent migrants are more likely to work in the informal sector. Our findings on the labour-market outcomes of successive generations of migrants are less conclusive. While a larger proportion of LTM children than that of their parents work in the formal sector, the children of migrant heads of households are less likely than those of non-migrants to find formal-sector jobs. We also find that distortionary labour-market regulations appear to diminish the overall benefits of migration.     

金融危机下农民工就业问题及对策

目前我国农村外出就业的农民工已超过1.3亿人。自去年第三季度以来,受金融危机影响,部分企业需求下降、订单减少、经营滑坡,用工需求大幅减少,约有2000万农民工被迫失业反乡,给农民工就业造成影响。这一问题已引起各级政府和社会各界的广泛关注。就业是民生之本,帮助农民工尽快就业,成为我国应对金融危机的当务之急。     

身份认同对流动人口家庭在流入地消费的影响

流动人口在城市的社会融合是健康城市化的重要内容，并且其本身也产生众多经济影响。文章利用2014年国家卫计委"流动人口社会融合与心理健康专题调查"的调查数据，分析流动人口不同的本地城市人身份认同对其家庭消费水平、家庭消费结构的影响。由于身份认同受到很多因素影响，具有内生性，因此我们在OLS基准回归之外，采用流动人口"本地话掌握水平"及"流出地土地面积"作为工具变量处理可能的内生性问题。我们也进行了替代变量的稳健性检验以及各种异质性检验。我们发现流动人口不同的身份认同程度对家庭消费水平、家庭消费结构有显著影响：更认同本地城市人身份的流动群体消费更高、恩格尔系数更低。同时，身份认同的消费影响在不同群体间存在一定异质性：这种效应对于年长的流动人口以及农村户籍流动人口更显著，这些异质性发现也符合预期。文章也进行了影响的可能机制检验，发现认可本地人身份的流动人口更倾向于在本地买房、长期工作生活和落户，减少在老家购房和生活的可能。研究结果对认识身份认同经济影响有一定学术价值；同时，文章的政策含义是，促进流动人口本地身份认同可以促进城市消费活力和居民生活质量。     

农民工劳动力供给行为异动与或然走向

从"民工潮"到"民工荒"再到新一轮的"民工荒",农民工劳动力供给行为呈现动态变化过程。劳动力转移和就业的不同时期,包括劳动力供给主体、劳动力供给的区域结构、劳动力供给的代际差异等诸多方面都呈现出不同的特征。农民工劳动力供给行为的动态变化有利于实现产业结构和就业结构的均衡配置;有利于进一步推动生产方式的变革;有利于加快产业转移和产业升级;有利于建立针对不同代农民工群体的回流和畅流机制,全面解决农民工就业问题,拓宽农民工的就业出路。     

The rise of migration and the fall of self employment in rural China's labor market

When examining questions regarding the Lewis model, one of the most salient set of facts involves the shift of labor between agricultural and the off farm sectors. The goal of this paper is to answer several questions about the nature of this movement: How has the expansion of the economy after 2000 affected off farm labor market participation? Has off farm labor continued to rise? What is this rise being driven by—migrant wage earners or self employment opportunities? What is, in part, driving these trends? Using a national representative set of data that consists of two waves of surveys done in 2000 and 2008 in six provinces, the paper finds that off farm labor market participation has continued to rise steadily in the early 2000s. However, there has been a structural break in the trends of occupational choice before and after 2000. Unlike before 2000, after 2000 migration's growth accelerated; during this same period the self employed subsector stagnated. The number of wage earning migrants in 2008 was greater than the number of those in the self employed subsector. The data also show that the rise in wage-earning migration is mainly being driven by the younger cohorts. Our analysis also shows that the rise of migration is happening in conjunction with a rising unskilled wage.