The Impact of Small Brownfields and Greenspaces on Residential Property Values

Using a hedonic pricing model, this paper investigates the responsiveness of residential property values in a well-defined inner-city neighborhood of Kenosha, Wisconsin, to the presence of two small former industrial sites contaminated by various environmental pollutants, or brownfields, and a local neighborhood park, or greenspace. Using readily available data on sales and assessments for residential property in close proximity to the brownfields and the greenspace, we estimate well-behaved and statistically significant property value gradients with respect to the park, the environmental amenity, and the brownfields, the environmental disamenities. These functions are then used to estimate the possible impact that brownfield remediation may have on total property value. We estimate that remediation and redevelopment of the brownfields into greenspaces would increase property values for the 890 neighborhood residences between $2.40 and $7.01 million. These results suggest that small brownfields have a measurable impact on property values and that readily accessible data can be used to help local policymakers make decisions on remediation issues.     

How bank capital buffers vary across countries: The influence of cost of deposits,market power and bank regulation

This paper analyzes the bank and country determinants of capital buffers using a panel data of 1337 banks in 70 countries between 1992 and 2002. After controlling for adjustment costs and the endogeneity of explanatory variables, the results show that capital buffers are positively related to the cost of deposits and bank market power, although the relations vary across countries depending on regulation, supervision, and institutions. Their impact is the result of two generally opposing effects: restrictions on bank activities and official supervision reduce the incentives to hold capital buffers by weakening market discipline, but at the same time they promote higher capital buffers by increasing market power. Institutional quality has the two opposite effects. Better accounting disclosure and less generous deposit insurance, however, have a clear positive effect on capital buffers by both strengthening market discipline and making charter value better able to reduce risk-taking incentives.     

关于我国房地产税收问题的若干思考

随着高房价问题的日益突出,通过对个人住房征收房地产税抑制房价成为一个热点话题。从国际经验和国内试点看,房地产税的主要功能是为基层政府提供稳定的财政收入,难以作为调控房价的手段。房地产税无论是从价计征、从量计征,还是分等级定额征收,均有利有弊,我国应审慎考虑各方因素和现实情况,斟酌选择计税依据。从税收征管的简易性考虑,按房地产面积从量计征是现阶段房地产税改革的优选,同时应尽量缩小减免税的范围。     

An examination of the role of security clauses and deposits in residential lease contracts

This paper argues that security clauses in lease contracts create a contingent claim on the value of the leased property, which resembles a put option on common stock. Adapting the standard results from option pricing theory gives insight into how landlords determine security deposit amounts, which serve to guarantee performance of the contract. Empirical tests show that deposit amounts are affected by the propensity of a property to be damaged, the propensity of a tenant to cause damage, and other characteristics of the landlord-tenant relationship. Two-stage least squares and probit regression estimates, however, provide only limited evidence to suggest that advance deposits significantly reduce tenant damages in the residential rental market.     

Living next to godliness: Residential property values and churches

This article extends the analysis concerning the impact of neighborhood churches on residential property values by investigating nearly 5,000 residential property transactions in Henderson, Nevada, between January 1986 and December 1990. We find that real property values decrease, at a decreasing rate, as distance from a neighborhood church increases. This result is the opposite of that reported by Do, Wilbur, and Short in a previous edition of this journal. We bolster our findings by showing that distance from the site of a future church has little or no impact on residential property values, whereas distance from an existing church is associated with lower property values. Our evidence indicates that neighborhood churches are amenities that enhance the value of neighborhood residential property. Finally, we demonstrate that larger churches (as measured by square foot of lot size) tend to have a greaterpositive impact on residential property values.     

Flood Hazards, Insurance Rates, and Amenities: Evidence From the Coastal Housing Market

This study employs the hedonic property price method to examine the effects of flood hazard on coastal property values. We utilize Geographic Information System data on National Flood Insurance Program flood zones and residential property sales from Carteret County, North Carolina. Our results indicate that location within a flood zone lowers property value. Price differentials for flood risk and the capitalized value of flood insurance premiums are roughly equivalent—both exhibiting a nonlinear relationship in flood probability. Our results support the conclusion that flood zone designation and insurance premiums convey risk information to potential buyers in the coastal housing market.     

A Housing Price Model with Endogenous Externality Location: A Study of Mobile Home Parks

This research explores the impact of mobile home parks on the value of single-family homes. This is the first study that empirically analyzes the effect of mobile home parks on property values. The empirical methodology used attempts to address the potential identification problem that exists within this study; it is possible that mobile home parks are located in areas of relatively lower land values or next to other land uses that impact property values. To address this identification problem, mobile home park locations are treated as endogenous within the model and the mobile home parks are identified as being located in residential or non-residential areas. The results suggest a negative effect on the selling price of single-family dwellings in close proximity to mobile home parks located in residential areas.     

The Value of Homes in Cluster Development Residential Districts: The Relative Significance of the Permanent Open Spaces Associated with Clusters

This study uses the hedonic framework to look at an aspect of planning and its effects on property values. Specifically, the study examines the impacts of cluster residential development on home value using data on Lower Gwynedd Township (Pennsylvania, USA). Other factors remaining constant, the study finds that properties located within cluster developments (CLUS) attract premium prices of roughly 3.9 %, on average, relative to properties in conventional developments. However, part of the 3.9 % price premium is attributable to the permanent open spaces which are parts and parcels of clusters. When the variable for open space (OPEN) is introduced, the cluster (CLUS) premium reduces to 2.02 % suggesting the relative importance the permanent open spaces. The open space variable (OPEN) is associated with a premium of as much as 5.2 %, on average. The density of development variable (DENSITY) is significantly negative at conventional levels. The normative implication of the density finding is that raising permitted densities, per se, in a sub-urban setting where market densities are lower than permitted densities, will have adverse impacts on home value. The results of this study provide empirical support for sustainable, greener, residential cluster development.     

The Impact of Railway Stations on Residential and Commercial Property Value: A Meta-analysis

Railway stations function as nodes in transport networks and places in an urban environment. They have accessibility and environmental impacts, which contribute to property value. The literature on the effects of railway stations on property value is mixed in its finding in respect to the impact magnitude and direction, ranging from a negative to an insignificant or a positive impact. This paper attempts to explain the variation in the findings by meta-analytical procedures. Generally the variations are attributed to the nature of data, particular spatial characteristics, temporal effects and methodology. Railway station proximity is addressed from two spatial considerations: a local station effect measuring the effect for properties with in 1/4 mile range and a global station effect measuring the effect of coming 250 m closer to the station. We find that the effect of railway stations on commercial property value mainly takes place at short distances. Commercial properties within 1/4 mile rang are 12.2% more expensive than residential properties. Where the price gap between the railway station zone and the rest is about 4.2% for the average residence, it is about 16.4% for the average commercial property. At longer distances the effect on residential property values dominate. We find that for every 250 m a residence is located closer to a station its price is 2.3% higher than commercial properties. Commuter railway stations have a consistently higher positive impact on the property value compared to light and heavy railway/Metro stations. The inclusion of other accessibility variables (such as highways) in the models reduces the level of reported railway station impact.

The sensitivity of bank stock returns to real estate

According to the Federal Reserve Board, banking firms have recently been shifting significantly larger portions of their loan portfolios into real estate. This increase in real estate lending has caused concern about the continuing economic health of banks on the part of state and federal regulators, since changes in real estate returns, evidenced by changes in property value, can potentially have a significant impact on bank default risk and profit-ability. However, concerned parties do not seem to have explicitly considered the relationship between mortgage default risk and the specific characteristics of real estate investments.This study examines the sensitivities of stock returns for different bank groups, based on the percentage of total loans in real estate and the percentage of loans in five different mortgage categories (construction and development loans, farmland loans, one- to four-family residential loans, multifamily residential loans, and nonresidential and nonfarm loans), to changes in real estate market returns. This is done by developing and using a three-index model.The results of this study indicate that bank stocks, overall, are very sensitive to changes in real estae returns. Banks, with a larger portion of their total loans invested in all types of real estate loans, except farmland loans, are most sensitive to changes in real estate returns.     

Bank capital buffers in a dynamic model

We estimate a dynamic structural banking model to examine the interaction between risk-weighted capital adequacy and unweighted leverage requirements, their differential impact on bank lending, and equity buffer accumulation in excess of regulatory minima. Tighter risk-weighted capital requirements reduce loan supplies and lead to an endogenous fall in bank profitability, reducing bank incentives to accumulate equity buffers and, therefore, increasing the incidence of bank failure. Alternatively, tighter leverage requirements increase lending, preserve bank charter value, and incentives to accumulate equity buffers leading to lower bank failure rates.     

“一体两翼”,金地能飞吗？

随着＂一体两翼＂战略的展开,金地正由纯粹的开发商转型为复合型房企,商业模式的改变能让金地再度腾飞吗？早在三年前,金地集团便提出,＂以住宅业务为核心,以商业地产和金融业务为两翼＂的战略架构。去年的博鳌房地产论坛上金地董事长凌克更是强调了＂向复合型地产转型,向地产行业上下链条延伸,以此逻辑推进住宅开发企业业务模式的转型,才是可持续发展的一个路径选择＂。随着房地产金融与商业地产业务的顺利展开,金地集团正在从纯粹的住宅开发企业转变为复合型企业集团。     

Real estate transfer taxes and property values: The Philadelphia story

We examine the effect of the 1988 increase in the Philadelphia real estate transfer tax on the sale price of residential property. We find that sales prices fell, as expected. While sampling variability is slightly higher than desirable, the point estimate of the key coefficient indicates a decrease in house price far greater than what would be expected with perfect capital markets. This may be attributed to either capital market imperfections or the news value of the tax increase. The burden of the transfer tax thus rests on the seller.     

Valuing long-term leases: The option to redevelop

Long-term leases on property are popular in many jurisdictions, both with private vendors and with local governments who want to retain future control over land use. A puzzling issue for vendors and purchasers has been how to value these leased properties relative to fee-simple properties. Simple present-value models suggest that there should be little difference between the price of fee-simple land and the price of long-term leases. Transaction prices in Canada on 80-year to 100-year residential leases, however, are 20 percent to 40 percent less than comparable fee-simple properties. We outline a financial model for valuing leased properties. The value of the option to upgrade or redevelop is considered. We show that the large part of the discount of leased properties from fee-simple properties can be explained by this option to redevelop.     

The Effect of Housing on Portfolio Choice

We show that characterizing the effects of housing on portfolios requires distinguishing between the effects of home equity and mortgage debt. We isolate exogenous variation in home equity and mortgages by using differences across housing markets in house prices and housing supply elasticities as instruments. Increases in property value (holding home equity constant) reduce stockholdings, while increases in home equity wealth (holding property value constant) raise stockholdings. The stock share of liquid wealth would rise by 1 percentage point—6% of the mean stock share—if a household were to spend 10% less on its house, holding fixed wealth.     

Price Volatility of Commercial and Residential Property

This article studies the relative volatility of commercial and residential property prices. Empirical evidence of commercial property prices being more volatile than the prices of residential property is presented. Models are built following that of Lucas. Theoretical statements are derived to show the exact conditions under which the observations arise. The cases of fixed supply and flexible supply are considered separately.     

Government Interference and the Efficiency of the Land Market in China

Municipal governments in China established direct control of the supply of urban land in August 2004. This paper examines whether this government action mitigates the efficiency of the residential land market. Using a unique data set of detailed land and residential community transactions with manually collected location information for residential land lots in seven Chinese cities, this paper analyzes the relationship between the land lease prices and residential property prices from the first quarter of 2001 to the fourth quarter of 2007. Results indicate that property prices determined land prices both before and after 2004:3, but the effect was significantly weaker after 2004:3. This is consistent with the hypothesis that the market for residential land became less efficient after municipal governments gained direct control of the land supply.     

The Impact of REO Sales on Neighborhoods and Their Residents

The foreclosure crisis in the U.S. has resulted in a large number of residential REOs. These properties have been found to reduce the value of nearby homes. An unresolved issue is whether these negative spillover effects disappear after the REO is sold. We hypothesize that these effects are greater if the REO is purchased by an investor in comparison to an owner–occupant. In this paper we report the results from estimating the spillover effects of both current and ex–REOs, where the latter are divided into those possessed by owner–occupants and those possessed by investors. The results lend considerable support to our hypothesis.     

The value of bank capital buffers in maintaining financial system resilience

There is a current controversy concerning the appropriate size of banks’ capital requirements, and the trade-off between the costs and benefits of implementing higher capital requirements. We quantify the size of capital buffers required to reduce system-wide losses using confidential regulatory data for Australian banks from 2002 to 2014 and annual public accounts from 1978 to 2014. We find that a moderate increase in bank capital buffers is sufficient to maintain financial system resilience, even after taking economic downturns into consideration. Furthermore, while banks benefit from paying a lower cost of debt when they have a higher capital buffer, lending volumes are lower indicating that credit supply may be hampered if bank capital levels are too high within a financial system.     

Corporate Insurance and Debt: The Case of China*

Finance theorists have long argued that corporate purchases of property insurance can reduce the probability and hence the expected costs of financial distress. And by so doing, the corporate use of insurance can reduce borrowing costs and/ or increase debt capacity, reduce the overall cost of capital, and increase firm value. This article attempts to apply this argument to the case of publicly traded companies in China, which provides a particularly interesting environment given the significant presence of both foreign direct investment and state shareholdings in its corporate sector. From their study of several hundred Chinese companies during the period 1997‐2003, the authors report the following conclusions: Companies with higher borrower costs tend to purchase more property insurance, which in turn has the effect of increasing their debt capacity. Smaller companies are more likely than larger firms both to insure their assets and to purchase more property insurance (as a percentage of assets), reflecting their greater vulnerability to financial shocks and larger potential benefit from insurers' real advisory services (such as loss prevention advice). Companies with more and larger growth opportunities are more likely to purchase insurance, reflecting their higher expected costs of financial distress (from possible underinvestment) than firms with limited growth opportunities. Companies with higher levels of state ownership tend to insure their assets to a greater extent, suggesting that the managers of such companies insure to protect their job security, particularly as the availability of state subsidies to the Chinese corporate sector has declined since market reforms were initiated in 1978.