The demand for money in the Netherlands revisited

Summary This article presents an analysis of demand for money in The Netherlands, both at the aggregate level and the sectoral level. Special attention is devoted to the distinction between short and long run demand. Deviations of the long-run relationships are modelled by means of the error correction mechanism. The elasticities for aggregate demand are consistent with the findings for the money demand by the household and business sectors and correspond reasonably well with those derived from other studies. The estimated equations describe the rise in theM1- andM2-ratio in the 1980s in a satisfactory way, although forM2 from 1987 onwards there is a discrepancy between actual and fitted values. The disaggregated analysis shows that the behaviour of the business sector seems to be responsible for this.The authors are indebted to Professor S.K. Kuipers for his comments on an earlier draft.     

A re-examination of the demand for money in Nigeria

Summary and Conclusion This paper reexamines the demand for money in Nigeria and finds the real income and the expected rate of inflation to be important independent variables that explain over 80 percent of the variation in the real cash balance. The study shows that, in view of the low per capita income of Nigerians, permanent income and measure income are largely the same. An important finding of this study is that, because their price level is (in large part) exogenously determined, the monetary authorities in Nigeria should be more desirous of following the constant growth rate rule. A very substantial part of the country's export (that is, oil) is especially prone to inflationary pressures due to the ease with which international inflation can be transmitted. Since the authorities can control money stock, this ‘rule’ is indicated from both the theoretical and the empirical standpoint.     

Modelling the demand for broad money in the United States

The demand for money function occupies a central role in most theories of aggregate economic activity, especially in the formulation and execution of effective monetary policy. In this paper, estimates of the short- and long-run demand for broad money in the United States are obtained. The empirical evidence suggests that the relationship between the growth of money balances and its economic determinants is more stable than some have argued. Importantly, the out-of-sample forecasts presented here suggest that M2 growth in the 1980s is well predicted by an error-correction model that includes a variable representing the value of time and also uses real consumer spending as the short-run scale variable.     

A transaction theory of the demand for money

Zusammenfassung Eine Transaktionstheorie der Geldnachfrage. — In diesem Aufsatz wird versucht, die Keynessche Transaktions- und Spekulationsnachfrage nach Geld in eine einzige Transaktionsnachfrage nach Geld unter Unsicherheit zu fassen. Es wird gezeigt, da\ die Spekulationsnachfrage nicht unabh?ngig von der Transaktionsnachfrage ist und folglich nicht getrennt behandelt werden darf. Die Kosten für die Kassenhaltung werden in Liquidit?ts-, Alternativ- und Transaktionskosten aufgeschlüsselt. Liquidit?tskosten entstehen durch ungenügende Planung der für laufende Ausgaben bestimmten Kassenhaltung. Alternativkosten entsprechen der verlorengegangenen Rendite auf Kassenbest?nde. Transaktionskosten resultieren aus dem Konvertieren von nichtliquiden Mitteln in liquide (oder umgekehrt). Wenn Einkommen und Ausgaben stochastischen St?rungen ausgesetzt werden, zeigt sich, da\ sowohl aktive (Transaktions-) als auch passive (Spekulations-) Kassenbest?nde nachgefragt werden. Au\erdem wird dargestellt, da\ eine durch unerwartete Einnahmen oder Ausgaben bewirkte Erh?hung der Varianz der Kassenbest?nde (Risiko) zwar zuerst zu gr?\eren Kassenbest?nden führt, diese sich aber verringern, nachdem das Risiko einen bestimmten Schwellenwert erreicht hat. Weiterhin wird gezeigt, da\ 1. ?risk aversion? weder eine notwendige noch hinreichende Bedingung für die Existenz passiver Kassenbest?nde darstellt; 2. beobachtete durchschnittliche Kassenbest?nde eine ?biased? Sch?tzung der optimalen Kassenbest?nde sind und 3. in einem bestimmten Bereich der Kassenbest?nde wegen der Transaktionskosten keine Anpassung aufgrund einer Risiko- oder Zinssatz?nderung vorgenommen wird.

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Résumé Une théorie de transaction de la demande de monnaie. — L’article essaye de réconcilier la demande d:ncaisses de transactions et, aussi de l’origine keynésienne, la demande d:ncaisses de spéculation en formulant seulement une demande d:ncaisses de transactions en présence de l’incertitude. Il est montré que la demande d’ncaisses de spéculation n’est pas indépendante de la demande d’ncaisses de transactions et qu’il n’est pas justifié de séparer ces deux formes de demande. Trois types de co?ts résultants de la détention de monnaie sont distingués: les co?ts de liquidité, les co?ts d’opportunité et les co?ts de transaction. Les co?ts de liquidité résultent des encaisses pas bien projetées en vue des dépenses courantes. Le co?t d’opportunité est le rendement renoncé des encaisses. Les co?ts de transaction résultent des conversions des actifs en l’encaisse, ou vice versa. Si le revenu et les dépenses sont soumis aux perturbations aléatoires, il est montré qu’il y a une demande d’encaisses actives (de transactions) et une demande d’ncaisses oisives (de spéculation). En outre, il est dérivé que, à la suite d’une augmentation de la variance des encaisses à cause des revenus et dépenses pas projetés, l’on détient d’abord des encaisses de plus en plus grande jusqu’au point au delà les risques grandissent beaucoup et exigent la détention des encaisses plus petites. L’auteur conclut (1) que l’aversion contre les risques n:st pas une condition ni nécessaire ni suffisante pour l:xistence des encaisses oisives; (2) que les encaisses moyennes observées sont des estimations des encaisses optimales caractérisées d’un biais; (3) qu’il n’y a pas, sur un certain rang d:ncaisses, des ajustements à la suite des variations du risque ou de l’intérêt à cause des co?ts de transaction.

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Resumen Una teoria de transacci?n para la demanda por dinero. — El présente trabajo trata de reconciliar la demanda por dinero especulativa y de transacci?n de Keynes con una demanda por dinero ?nica de transacci?n bajo condiciones de incertidumbre. Se muestra que la demanda por dinero especulativa no es independiente de la demanda por dinero de transacción y, que por lo tanto, no es correcto tratar estas dos demandas en forma separada. Se distinguen tres tipos de costos para mantener dinero: costo de liquidez, costo de oportunidad y costo de transacción. Costo de liquidez es aquél en que se incurre por no tener un plan de pagos al contado adecuado para cubrir los desembolsos corrientes. Costo de oportunidad es el rédito perdido por la mantencion de dinero en caja. Costos de transacci⤵ son costoc envueltos en la conversión de activos a dinero en caja y vice versa. Si el ingreso y los pagos están sujetos a perturbaciones estoc⟹ticas, se demuestra que habrá una demanda tanto para activos (transacción) como para dinero en caja ocioso (especulativa). Además se demuestra que en la medida en que la varianza del dinero en caja (riesgo) crece como resultado de ingresos o gastos no planeados, esto lleva primero a mantener dinero en caja en mayores cantidades, pero una vez que el riesgo crece, se mantienen a partir de cierto punto menores cantidades de dinero en caja. Ademàs se demuestra que (1) la aversión por el riesgo no es una condición necesaria ni suficiente para la existencia de dinero en caja ocioso; (2) los promedios observados de dinero en caja son estimaciones sesgadas de las cantidades óptimas de dinero en caja y (3) que a partir de cierto límite de cantidades de dinero en caja no se harán ajustes ni para cambios en los riesgos, ni para cambios en las tasas de interés como consecuencia de costos de transacción.

     

International comparisons of money demand

Many studies of the demand for money, covering a wide variety of economies, have demonstrated the importance of financial innovations and shifts in monetary policy regimes, but they have also illustrated the difficulty of measuring and assessing such changes. Because innovations and regime shifts have differed markedly across countries, international comparisons can help identify their effects. This paper reviews the literature on money demand comparisons, focusing primarily on industrial countries. It finds that innovations have had widespread effects, but also that the demand for money is not generally less stable now than it was before those changes occurred.     

Divisia monetary aggregates and money demand for Malaysia

Divisia M1 and M2 are constructed for Malaysia. Unlike M1, Divisia M2 shows significant differences in both level and growth rates from its simple sum counterpart. We also compare these Divisia measures to simple sum M1 and M2 in a money demand function. Using error correction models, we examine short-run dynamics between these monetary aggregates and money demand determinants such as inflation, domestic and foreign interest rates, financial wealth, and income. We find that Divisia M2 is the most appropriate monetary aggregate of the four candidates to track money demand in Malaysia and should be used when conducting monetary policy.     

Economic reform and the stability of the demand for money in Tanzania

This paper investigates whether there exists a stationary long-runequilibrium relationship between real money balances, real income,inflation and expected depreciation in Tanzania which can beidentified as a money demand function. As the institutionaland regulatory framework in Tanzania has undergone a seriesof changes since economic reforms began in the mid-1980s, shiftsin parameters over time might have occurred, causing instabilityin the money demand function. Using Johansen's maximum likelihoodand dynamic modelling procedure, the paper finds equilibriumin the long run and a stable money demand function. These findingsimply that, even though economic liberalization and relaxationof controls could have induced instability in the money demandfunction as conjectured in the literature, such instabilitywas not significant enough to inhibit the estimation of short-and long-run demand for money.     

Monetary services and money demand in China

Using Barnett's methodology, we construct a monetary services index (MSI) for China. Compared to the traditional simple money aggregates, this index has solid microeconomic foundations, and has consistent variables. With China's on-going economic reforms in full swing, this index may provide a more appropriate indication of the current rapid process of economic monetization and financial innovations. In addition, we that it is capable of using the MSI to replace the conventional simple-sum aggregates in estimating long-term money demand. This may provide attractiveness for the People's Bank of China (PBC) to include the index as an alternative target variable in concluding its monetary policy during the period of rapid economic transition.     

Scale variable specification in a money demand function for Malaysia

We investigate what scale variable is most appropriate in the money demand function for Malaysia. Candidates include income, consumption, disposable income, and domestic absorption and these are considered for simple sum M1 and M2 and for Divisia M1 and M2. Non-nested tests and other model selection criteria such as R² are used. The non-nested tests for the M1 aggregates are inconclusive but more support is given for income as the scale variable for the M2 aggregates, especially for Divisia M2. The other procedures also show that income is preferred for M2 and some support is also given for income for the M1 aggregates.     

The behavior of money demand in the Chinese hyperinflation

In this paper I study the behavior of money demand during the episode of hyperinflation that occurred in China after World War II. I consider two popular and competing money demand specifications – the log–log and the semi-log – and show that the log–log performs better than the semi-log in its ability to track the behavior of the money demand. The choice between the two specifications is of great importance, as it implies that welfare cost estimates are very different for hyperinflation. The findings also contribute to the understanding of Cagan’s paradox and the failure of Cagan inflationary finance models. The paradox might be attributable to the popular semi-log schedule for money demand, and the log–log schedule might be an appropriate form for the analysis of hyperinflation.     

De-monetisation, inflation and coffee: the demand for money in Uganda

This paper investigates the recent macroeconomic history ofUganda using time series models for the demand for the threemain monetary aggregates. A collapse of income and high inflationled to de-monetisation. The flight from currency and demanddeposits was limited by their use for transactions, but demandfor time and savings deposits was largely a function of inflation.The role of the exchange rate and the price of coffee in determiningan asset demand for money was mixed. Re-monetisation since thelate 1980s has been slower than de-monetisation.     

Cointegration,error correction,and the demand for money in Mexico

Cointegration, Error Correction and the Demand for Money in Mexico. -Estimates of the long-run demand for narrow and broad definitions of the Mexican money supply over the period 1980Q1–1994Q1 suggest that a single cointegrating relationship exists for real money balances (M1 and M2), a scale variable (real GDP or real consumption expenditure), and the 91-day treasury bill rate. The results from short-run dynamic equations favor M2 as the monetary aggregate to target and suggest that real GDP rather than real private consumption is a more appropriate scale variable in the demand for money function for Mexico.