The WTO Panel Report on Boeing subsidies: a critical assessment

On 31 March 2011, the World Trade Organisation’s Dispute Settlement Body circulated the final Panel Report on US subsidies for the aircraft manufacturer Boeing. The long expected decision marks a turning point in the biggest trade dispute in WTO history, but its interpretations diverge substantially: both the United States and the European Union have claimed a “sweeping” victory, and yet both parties appealed parts of the Panel Report in April 2011. In addition, the Airbus Appellate Body Report in the Airbus case, which was issued on 18 May 2011, reversed many of the Panel’s findings against the EU. Which WTO-inconsistent subsidies did the Dispute Settlement Body find and what is the outlook for the future?     

WTO争端解决程序的适用规则——多边环境保护公约能否成为适用规则

WTO争端解决机制的专家组和上诉机构能否根据MEA和一般国际法处理冲突的规则优先适用MEA,并认定一项根据MEA所采取的贸易限制措施不构成对WTO法的违反呢?为回答这一问题,本文首先确认,现行WTO法将争端解决机制的适用规则严格限制于WTO适用协定,即根据其实体管辖权,专家组和上诉机构专门受理根据适用协定所提起的申诉,不能受理根据MEA或其他实体国际法而提起的申诉。因此,MEA或其他实体国际法不能成为适用规则。其次,通过分析对这一问题的赞成与反对意见,对包括MEA在内的实体国际法的限定性适用,本文提出了支持的观点,认为前者更有利于克服当今世界国际法的"碎片化"现象。     

Dispute Settlement at the WTO: Impacts of a No Deal in the US‐Brazil Cotton Dispute

On the day before Brazil was to start imposing retaliatory sanctions against the United States in the WTO dispute settlement case regarding unfair domestic and export upland cotton subsidies, the parties have reached a preliminary concession aimed at settling this eight‐year‐long trade dispute. In this paper, we explore the economywide impacts of a no deal with specific emphasis on intellectual property retaliation in a computable general equilibrium framework. As awarded by a WTO dispute settlement panel, Brazil would have been entitled to $591 million in retaliatory sanctions in goods sectors and $238 million in intellectual property sanctions. We find that retaliation by Brazil would have led to welfare gains for all countries except the United States. Most importantly, however, had Brazil not been allowed to retaliate in the form of suspension of intellectual property rights, the impact of trade retaliation alone would have been negative for both Brazil and the United States, a case of shooting oneself in the foot to shoot at the other person's foot.     

Developing Countries as Plaintiffs and Defendants in GATT/WTO Trade Disputes

Developing countries have been increasing their participation in the formal institutions and proceedings of the multilateral trading system. A prominent example is their more frequent involvement as defendants and plaintiffs in GATT/WTO trade disputes. This paper provides an initial economic appraisal of developing country performance in the GATT/WTO dispute settlement system. We measure the economic resolution of these disputes through trade liberalisation gains, and our results suggest that developing country plaintiffs have had more success under WTO disputes than was the case under the GATT. We also document evidence on potential determinants of this success: the capacity for plaintiffs to make credible retaliatory threats and the guilty determinations by GATT/WTO panels. Finally, there is also some evidence that developing countries have recognised the importance of retaliatory threats and have responded by changing their pattern of dispute initiation under the WTO to better take advantage of the instances in which they have sufficient leverage to threaten retaliation and induce compliance with GATT/WTO obligations.     

WTO棉花争议案中交叉报复的研究

鉴于中国与贸易伙伴贸易摩擦的增多,深入研究WTO争端解决机制及案例对加入世贸不久的中国来说,如何更好地利用WTO争端解决机制具有重要意义。对交叉报复和对报复要求仲裁的理解是对WTO争端解决机制进行深入研究的两个重要方面。     

WTO框架下的全球贸易争端研究

作为WTO"皇冠上的明珠"的争端解决机制一直是保障多边贸易体制的正常运行的中流砥柱,在缓解、消除全球贸易摩擦与冲突中起到重要作用。然而随着特朗普政府引领的美国"强权主义"回归,挑战了WTO争端解决机制的权威性,对上诉机构的干扰致使上诉机构几近瘫痪。在此背景下本文在对1995-2019年WTO争端案件发展趋势详细分析的基础上,着重研究了特朗普执政以来全球以及中美之间的贸易争端案件。通过对案件和当前WTO争端解决机制发展的最新事态的分析,本文进一步剖析了当前全球贸易争端机制存在的问题以及我国的应对之策,以期能对我国贸易利益的保护有所助益。     

Empirical evidence on surrogate country method for non‐market economy: US anti‐dumping policy towards China

Whether the non‐market economy (NME) treatment on China can be maintained even after the expiry date under Section 15 of China's World Trade Organization (WTO) Accession Protocol is one of the most controversial issues in the WTO. In fact, the key issue of the NME status in the anti‐dumping (AD) proceedings turns out to be how surrogate countries are selected in relation to dumping margin calculation. This paper reviews the US practices concerning the application of the surrogate country method. Despite the general perception of capricious and random selection of surrogate countries, the Department of Commerce has maintained a consistent pattern for applying the criteria. This seemingly consistent practice, however, raised systematic problems—but not at a significant scale—in dumping margin calculation concerning Chinese products. This result sheds an interesting light on the current WTO disputes concerning the China's NME status. At least in terms of the US AD practices, the result of the WTO dispute settlement process may not have a significant impact on the China's exportation.     

The Evolution of Japan's Aggressive Legalism

Japan's recent trade policy is sometimes characterised as ‘aggressive legalism’ in the sense that it aggressively utilises the multilateral trade rules embodied in the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organisation in dealing with disputes with its trade partners. This policy may appear to be a marked departure from Japan's past practice of favouring bilateral, non‐legal settlement of trade disputes. Upon closer examination, however, while Japan has been moderately active in using the WTO dispute settlement process for resolving its trade disputes, it behaves more like a country that resorts to surgical strikes on selected targets (usually the United States) under a powerful cover of the European Community. Compared to Japan, Korea's attitude in the WTO is more aggressive. While the Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) is not content with the status quo and is seeking to expand its aggressiveness in the WTO dispute settlement mechanism, it faces an uphill battle. One of the difficulties facing trade officials in Japan may be the lack of a national system for lodging WTO complaints, open to any citizens or firms, like Section 301 of the US Trade Act of 1974 or the European Trade Barriers Regulation. Nonetheless, in the historical context, Japan is far more aggressive than in the past in utilising the rules of the GATT/WTO to advance its national interests. It will never revert to the infamous practice of bilateralism and grey area measures.     

WTO视域下的美国《食品安全现代化法》

2011年1月14日美国国会通过的《食品安全现代化法》显著提升了美国食品安全监管标准,该法第三章对进口食品安全监管体制所做新规,如国外供应商认证程序、自愿合格进口商计划、授权取得食品进口证书等将对美国食品贸易体制发生重大影响,其影响将溢出到整个国际食品贸易市场。这部法律总体上符合WTO法律制度,但若干具体规则有违反WTO最惠国待遇原则之嫌。目前尚未有涉及FSMA的WTO诉讼案件,因此其相符性还有待WTO争端解决机制的实际验证。     

US–Brazilian cotton policies

Brazil filed a lawsuit with the WTO against the United States for providing cotton production and export subsidies, and the WTO ruled in favour of Brazil. Brazil threatened to impose retaliatory tariffs if the United States does not comply with the WTO rulings. After a prolonged litigation stretching from 2002 to 2010, both countries agreed to a negotiated settlement wherein the United States paid Brazilian cotton producers to compensate for any adverse effects. This study develops a political economic model to theoretically analyse US cotton policies, Brazil's threat of retaliatory tariffs and the negotiated settlement between the two countries. The theoretical results show that the volume of cotton output, supply price response, politicians' apathy for the public welfare, elasticities of excess supply/demand and the magnitude of US transfers play a crucial role in determining US policies. This study contributes to the literature by being the first to model political economic aspects of the complex system of trade and domestic policies in the cotton industry using a three-country framework, tariff retaliation and transfers between the countries.     

WTO贸易救济措施争端解决的绩效分析——基于动态非平衡面板数据模型系统GMM检验

文章在回顾相关研究的基础上考虑四阶段WTO争端解决程序,根据WTO争端案例结案时长不等的特点和多阶段策略选择难以量化的性质,建立WTO贸易救济措施争端解决绩效动态非平衡面板数据模型,运用系统GMM检验,对WTO贸易救济措施争端解决绩效进行了实证分析。结果表明：积极援引WTO争端解决机制是能够在一定程度上挽回贸易损失的,尤其是双方在争端解决过程中达成的磋商解决、请求专家组中止工作、相互满意解决或者败诉方执行WTO决定等均对申诉方出口贸易具有促进作用;尽快结案将有利于申诉方,而WTO争端解决案件的持续时间越长,越不利于申诉方。     

世贸组织争端解决实践中的条约目的解释

世贸组织争端解决实践中贸易规则的目的解释呈现出以下特点:一是争端解决机构否认在目的解释与其他条约解释方法之间存在位阶关系,主张各种条约解释方法之间应保持统一和整体性;二是通过目的解释明确了世贸组织法律规则与一般国际法之间的部分与整体关系,强调世贸组织规则与其他国际法部门规则间的相互协调;三是通过目的解释方法的运用,完善和发展了世贸组织争端解决的程序性规则,强化了争端解决机制的功能。目的解释的正当性决定于它能否被争端当事方及世贸组织成员普遍认同与接受。     

“后报复”阶段的规则研究与多哈DSU改革方案——以US/Canada-Continued Suspension案为例

DSU规定了实施报复的条件和程序,但对报复实施后的监督和终止却疏于规范。US/Canada–Continued Suspension呈现了"后报复"阶段的各种问题。上诉机构报告对终止报复的条件、解决后报复执行异议的适当程序、有权且负有义务启动程序的争端方等的裁决和诠释,对完善WTO裁决执行机制具有正面的体制性意义,但也因突破了DSU案文和忽视进行中的DSU谈判,被指责为超越权限的造法。多哈回合DSU谈判对"后报复"问题形成的两种改革方案均未全然接受上诉机构报告的结论,而是各自采纳了互不相同的逻辑和解决思路。     

上诉机构“停摆”之后的WTO争端解决机制何去何从

WTO争端解决机制自生效以来,以其高效的纠纷解决和具有约束力的裁决一直被认为是维护多边贸易体制的重要力量。尤其是争端解决中设立上诉机制,开创了国际争端解决两审终审的先例,这使得WTO体制下的争端解决与其他国际体制下的争端解决相比,更加凸显其公正性与有效性。然而,由于个别成员的阻挠,上诉机构于2019年12月10日因到期离任的成员不能够及时得到增补而陷于"停摆",无法继续受理上诉案件。上诉机构停止运作会给WTO的争端解决机制走向带来很大的不确定性,但是世贸组织争端解决机构不会停止工作,多边贸易体制也不会因此陷入崩溃。     

The North American–European Union Dispute Over Beef Produced Using Growth Hormones: A Major Test for the New International Trade Regime

At the time, the negotiation of the SPS agreement was seen as a major accomplishment of the Uruguay Round. One of the first major tests of both the SPS and the WTO’s new dispute settlement system was the long standing and acrimonious dispute between the EU and the US and Canada over trade in beef produced using hormones. Both the SPS and the disputes system performed as expected but the EU, the loser in the case, has chosen to ignore the WTO Panel’s ruling and accept retaliation. As a result, the credibility of the WTO is threatened and the outcome suggests that new negotiations may be required. The issues in the case are outlined and implications for trade in biological products drawn.     

非政府组织参与WTO争端解决机制的制度构建

非政府组织以“法庭之友”身份参与WID争端解决是一种必然趋势。“法庭之友”问题的解决应在维护WTO成员国的主权和尊重司法独立间谋求平衡。对于“法庭之友”事项中的实质性问题的解决应采取契约的模式,各成员方通过谈判的方式协商各方的立场,对DSU规则进行修订,具体程序性的规则由上诉机构进行制定。     

WTO争端解决程序中的第三方介入问题及我国的对策研究

第三方介入制度是WTO争端解决程序中的一项具有特色且非常重要的制度。本文介绍了第三方介入制度的形成与发展，并在分析第三方在争端解决中的权限以及第三方介入制度运行的基础上，提出我国作为第三方介入WTO争端解决的对策。     

对华反补贴的最新动态、发展趋势与因应对策

反补贴已经成为我国近年来贸易摩擦的新热点。我国在连续13年成为全球遭遇反倾销调查最多的国家后,2007年和2008年又成为全球反补贴的最大目标国。本文首先从单边和多边两个层面总结了2004年以来截至2009年3月底我国遭遇反补贴的最新态势及其特征;然后结合国际宏观经济环境和反补贴的连锁效应分析了对华反补贴的未来趋势,认为,在今后几年中对华反补贴仍将在高位运行,但将逐步回落;最后从政府和企业两个层面提出了应对反补贴的对策建议。     

Steel: A new round of protectionism in American trade

Traditionally the American steel industry is the most protected industrial sector in the USA and internationally it is the largest user of anti-dumping and anti-subsidy proceedings. At the end of 1994 a ruling from the GATT Panel settled the most recent trade dispute in the steel market. A number of the anti-dumping and anti-subsidy proceedings applied for by US integrated steel producers in 1992 remain in effect. The following paper outlines the latest trade dispute in the steel trade, beginning with an overview of the various rounds of protectionism to date, and seeks to analyse the background to and causes of the dispute.     

Airbus versus Boeing revisited: international competition in the aircraft market

This paper examines international competition in the commercial aircraft industry. We estimate a discrete choice, differentiated products demand system for wide-body aircraft and examine the Airbus-Boeing rivalry under various assumptions on firm conduct. We then use this structure to evaluate two trade disputes between the United States and European Union. Our results suggest that aircraft prices increased by about 3.7% after the 1992 US-EU agreement on trade in civil aircraft that limits subsidies. This price hike is consistent with a 5% increase in firms' marginal costs after the subsidy cuts. We also simulate the impact of the future entry of the Airbus A-380 super-jumbo aircraft on the demand for other wide-bodied aircraft, notably the Boeing 747. We find that the A-380 could reduce the market share of the 747 by up to 14.8 percentage points in the long-range wide-body market segment (depending upon the discounts offered on the A-380), but would reduce the market for Airbus's existing wide-bodies by an even greater margin.