The role of actual,ideal, and ought self‐congruence in the consumption of hedonic versus utilitarian brands

To emotionally attach consumers to a brand and inspire brand loyalty, marketers often target the brand personality towards the consumer's actual or ideal self. The self is not limited to its actual and ideal dimension, however, and motivation to approach a desired self may vary depending on the consumer's personality. Thus, the current research is the first to link self‐congruence to self‐discrepancy theory by incorporating the ought self into the self‐congruence framework and taking into account self‐discrepancies as potential moderators of the self‐congruence effect. Additionally, hedonic brand nature is discussed as important condition for self‐congruence and self‐discrepancies exhibiting their fullest effect. The conducted study focuses on how actual, ideal, and ought self‐congruence influence emotional brand attachment and consequently brand loyalty. For brands of primary hedonic nature, findings confirm actual and ideal self‐congruence as drivers of emotional brand attachment, which in turn increases brand loyalty, while ought self‐congruence influences brand loyalty directly. Moreover, self‐discrepancies moderate the described relations, albeit their effect is contrary to theory‐based expectations. From these findings, the authors derive important implications for business practice and future research.     

Antecedents and consequences of chronic impulsive buying: Can impulsive buying be understood as dysfunctional self‐regulation?

Researchers reach different conclusions about the functional or dysfunctional nature of impulsive buying behavior. While many note the use of impulsive buying as a form of mood regulation, there is disagreement about whether this is functional or dysfunctional and the extent to which it causes financial harm. This paper draws on data from a U.K. national survey sample (N = 109,472) to contribute to these debates. Study results suggest that impulsive buying is more common for those who have most need to regulate mood and who have the least effective emotion regulation strategies. This suggests that impulsive buying may be understood as a failure of self‐regulation in relation to long‐term goals and as a strategy for mood regulation. Contrary to some prior claims in the retail management and marketing research literature, the study shows higher levels of impulsive buying to be associated with more adverse financial outcomes (which are not confined to the most extreme manifestations of the trait). While ineffective emotion regulation is associated with higher propensity to buy impulsively, the findings also suggest that effective emotion regulation may to some extent mitigate the adverse consequences of the propensity to buy impulsively. The implications for ethical management, research, and policy are considered.     

Social influence: The role of self‐monitoring when making social comparisons

The self‐monitoring construct (Snyder, 1987) may prove to be useful when examining who individuals choose when making social comparisons. In Study 1, the self‐monitoring propensity of individuals who provide social comparison information and the self‐monitoring propensity of individuals who use such information were examined. Results supported the hypothesis that high self‐monitors have advisors (i.e., individuals to whom they first turn for advice) that are high in self‐monitoring, whereas low self‐monitors have advisors that are low in self‐monitoring. In Study 2, high and low self‐monitors identified their advisors as experts and generalists. Results supported the hypothesis that high self‐monitors have more expert advisors than low self‐monitors. The findings are discussed in terms of the implications for consumer decision making. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Regulatory Modes and Entrepreneurship: The Mediational Role of Alertness in Small Business Success

Previous studies suggest that entrepreneurs play a key role in the success of their ventures. But relatively little is currently known about how they produce such effects. The present research provides data suggesting that two modes of entrepeneurs’ self‐regulation—locomotion and assessment—enhance a firm's success through their effects on the components of alertness. This mediational model was tested and supported with data from 120 entrepreneurs. Locomotion was positively related to the scanning and search component, while assessment was positively related to the association and evaluation components. These findings are discussed in terms of the role of founders’ self‐regulation in the performance of their companies.     

Priming a Cross‐Category Brand Alliance: The Moderating Role of Attribute Knowledge and Need for Cognition

Firms often enter cross‐category advertising brand alliance strategies with the goal to increase their market share by association with popular but noncompeting brand allies. However, firms are often not aware of the effects of these alliances on consumer perceptions of participating brands. This research explores the factors moderating brand attribute inferences following exposure to a cross‐category advertising brand alliance. It is proposed that attributes of a brand ally may serve as anchors that produce assimilation effects and move perceptions of a target brand toward the ally's attribute value, or as standards of comparison that produce contrast. This work provides evidence that attribute judgments in a cross‐category advertising brand alliance are moderated by attribute knowledge and individual differences in information processing motivation as reflected in self‐reported need for cognition (NFC) ratings.     

When self‐customization backfires: The role of a maximizing mindset

Self‐customization in online shopping contexts readily offers an abundance of options for consumers. However, the sheer amount of information can quickly become overwhelming. One way to give people the freedom to choose without overwhelming them with information is to simplify the decision process by breaking it down into a series of smaller steps. Contrary to a common assumption that simpler decisions increase choice likelihood, however, this study demonstrates that a simple by‐attribute self‐customization process may activate a maximizing mindset, which increases people's desire to find better options and decreases their satisfaction with the ones available. Consequently, simplifying the self‐customization process can sometimes backfire by decreasing choice likelihood. Three studies suggest that although by‐attribute self‐customization formats are easier to choose from, compared with more complex matrix formats, they may sometimes—paradoxically—increase choice deferral. The findings suggest that a maximizing mindset mediates this effect, casting doubt on information‐based alternative explanations. The findings also suggest that whether by‐attribute self‐customization increases or decreases choice likelihood may depend on the presence of objective quality cues, which indicate that an objectively‐best option can be found. This study furthers the understanding of how decision difficulty and maximizing influence self‐customization decisions.     

Towards effective advertising self‐regulation in Australia: the seven components

Despite claims of social and economic benefits, advertising has always had its critics. However, when dealing with unacceptable advertising, advertisers in developed countries usually choose a self‐regulatory approach in order to stave off government intervention. The recent breakdown of one of the world's longest established advertising self‐regulatory programmes in Australia has reopened the 20‐year‐old debate concerned with enhancing understanding of such regulatory systems. This article presents a framework for assisting in improving the effectiveness of advertising self‐regulation that is informed by both the literature and the key findings of an Australian study. The study used a mixed approach to data collection, including in‐depth interviews with regulators, advertisers and public participants and historical analysis of more than 10 000 complaints over a period of 10 years. From this research three key concepts are developed for assisting industry and regulators concerned with regulating advertising in eliminating undesirable features of such systems in the future. The empirical work succeeds in making both a practical and theoretical contribution to advertising self‐regulation specifically and industry regulation in general.     

The role of ethical obligation and self‐identity in ethical consumer choice

Many variables have been proposed as additions to the theory of planned behaviour structure, and evidence exists to support the value of a measure of ethical obligation and self‐identity. Furthermore, some research has suggested that ethical obligation may serve as an antecedent to attitude as well as intention. This paper presents findings from a large scale survey that highlights the usefulness of ethical obligation and self‐identity in the prediction of intention. Additionally, the role of both these variables in the prediction of attitude is also suggested. This is examined within the ‘ethical’ context of fair trade grocery purchases. Methodological implications for further research are discussed.     

Consumer Self‐Confidence in Searching for Information

Consumer behavior is often driven by the extent to which consumers feel confident regarding their decisions, which frequently hinge, especially in high‐stakes situations, on their information search. This article examines a multidimensional self‐confidence concept to explore how consumer self‐confidence influences information search. Findings of a mail survey document that high‐confidence consumers engage in more intensive search activities and that demographic patterns shape consumer self‐confidence scores. The findings empirically support a multidimensional measurement of self‐confidence to predict search behavior and suggest avenues to enhance the self‐confidence needed to produce positive marketplace experiences.     

The Best I Can Be: How Self‐Accountability Impacts Product Choice in Technology‐Mediated Environments

Technology‐mediated environments are important not only as the location for an increasing proportion of purchases, but also as an even more pervasive part of the purchase journey. While most research into online consumer behavior focuses on attitudes as an antecedent of product choice, this article focuses on an important but hardly explored variable that may be impacted by technology‐mediated environments: self‐accountability. Laboratory experiments suggest that self‐accountability may influence online purchases, but this has not been confirmed in field studies. Furthermore, although this prior work suggests that self‐accountability may impact product choice through the elicitation of guilt, the role of positive emotions has not been explored. Using two surveys with online retailers, this paper (a) shows that in a technology‐mediated environment, self‐accountability influences product choice; (b) proposes and confirms a complementary route for this effect through pride that is stronger than that through guilt; and (c) evidences the relationship between self‐accountability and perceived consumer effectiveness. These results show a clear opportunity for digital marketers to encourage self‐accountability, to thereby elicit pride and not just guilt, and hence to impact consumer decision making in technology‐mediated environments, particularly when choices have sustainability implications.     

Pleasure and the Control of Food Intake: An Embodied Cognition Approach to Consumer Self‐Regulation

Consumers try to avoid temptation when exposed to appetizing foods by diverting their attention away from their senses (e.g., sight, smell, mouthfeel) and bodily states (e.g., state of arousal, salivation) in order to focus on their longer term goals (e.g., eating healthily, achieving an ideal body weight). However, when not including sensations in their decision‐making processes, consumers risk depleting their self‐regulatory resources, potentially leading to unhealthy food choices. Conversely, based on the concept of “embodied self‐regulation,” the suggestion is made that considering bodily states may help consumers regulate their food choices more effectively. A new model is proposed that facilitates understanding observed consumer behavior and the success or failure of self‐control in food intake. It is argued that bodily states and sensory information should be considered when modeling consumer behavior and developing health‐related advocacy and communication campaigns. The model proposed here leads to new perspectives on consumer consumption behavior and health policy research and strategies.     

Do you want to talk about it? When word of mouth alleviates the psychological discomfort of self‐threat

When consumers experience a self‐threat due to receiving negative information that calls the positivity of their self‐concept into question, psychological discomfort ensues, motivating consumers to seek a resolution. This research examines how consumers use word of mouth to overcome this discomfort and cope with a self‐threat. The psychological discomfort associated with a self‐threat generally influences consumers to refrain from spreading word of mouth in order to avoid the potential for further negative evaluations. However, a self‐threat can encourage the spread of word of mouth if consumers perceive a brand as possessing attributes positively associated with the threatened aspect of the self, signaling sufficiency in the threat domain. Furthermore, this research demonstrates that spreading word of mouth about a brand that signals sufficiency in the threat domain is an effective coping tactic that alleviates the psychological discomfort caused by the self‐threat. Overall, the present research deepens the current understanding of the relationships among self‐threat, symbolic brands, and word of mouth by revealing that a brand's symbolic associations shape the effect of the self‐threat on word of mouth.     

Self‐regulation of unwanted consumption

The issue of consumption control is viewed from the perspective of self‐regulation in which successful attempts at controlling problem behaviors depend upon achieving motivational readiness. It is proposed that consumption control can be understood as a series of stage‐related processes that follow from theoretical accounts of self‐regulation contained in the transtheoretical model of change, and the model of action phases. In order to observe ongoing consumption‐control processes, a diary study, in which participants described their actions, thoughts, and feelings in attempting a personal consumption‐control project, was conducted. Diary entries were interpreted in light of theoretical stage‐related processes. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Taking Advantage of a Vulnerable Group? Emotional Cues in Ads Targeting Parents

Parents of small children regularly face challenges that are new to them, creating uncertainties and stress that complicate their decision‐making processes. In this vulnerable state, parents may be susceptible to emotional appeals in advertisements in ways that influence their knowledge formation, food choices, and perceptions of self. In this study, we use a combination of content analysis and interviews to examine the use of emotional appeals, particularly guilt and fear, in food ads and how parents respond to them. We find that guilt is more frequently used in ads that target parents than has been shown for other audiences, and that parents often express negative self‐images and coping strategies when viewing them.     

Self‐regulated learning in the workplace: strategies and factors in the attainment of learning goals

The research reported here is an exploratory qualitative study aimed at identifying professionals' self‐regulatory strategies underpinning the planning and attainment of learning goals in the workplace and showing how a number of organizational factors affect these strategies. The rationale for the study is that existing research tells us little about how professionals regulate their learning, largely because much of the literature on the self‐regulation of learning has been conducted with pupils and students in schools and universities rather than with professionals. Data were obtained through 29 semi‐structured interviews with professional employees in a company in the energy sector – including engineers, scientists and managers of various kinds – in 12 countries. Findings suggest that self‐regulatory learning practices in, from and for work are iterative and fluid rather than delineated into discrete stages as suggested by phase models of self‐regulation. There was little deliberate, systematic self‐reflection on learning in the workplaces studied. Learning goals were driven by short‐term work tasks and individuals' longer term development needs. Professionals draw extensively upon supervisors, mentors and colleagues when planning and attaining their learning goals. Formation of learning goals was constrained by individuals' perceptions of their career development potential and of how their progression potential is viewed by the organization in which they work.     

To Your Health: Health Insurance,Self‐Employment Exit,and Older Entrepreneurs

Drawing on a sample of 5,238 individuals in the Health and Retirement Study, we examined the relationship between having one's own health insurance and exit from self‐employment to employment. Our results indicate that individuals who have health insurance are less likely to exit self‐employment. When self‐employed individuals have their own health insurance, males, relative to females, are more likely to exit self‐employment. Additionally, when self‐employed individuals have their own health insurance, those who do not have health problems that limit work are more likely to exit. We discuss the implications that these findings have on the literature and policymakers.     

How different are corporate social responsibility motives in a developing country? Insights from a study of Indian agribusiness firms

Against the backdrop of increasing foreign direct investment flows in the developing economies in Asia, the investigation of topical aspects of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the region increases in importance. We examine the CSR motives of four large indigenous agribusiness firms in India with a view of assessing the validity of the claim that CSR in this country, compared to developed countries, is influenced substantially more by moral, cultural, and religious considerations and less by self‐interest and profit seeking. Unlike numerous other investigations of CSR that rely on questionnaires and company reports, our data are drawn from in‐depth interviews and theme analysis revealing some intricate motives behind CSR behavior and business conditions that inspire them. Our findings challenge some previously reported results and indicate that the degree to which such a behavior is affected by the state of economic development and cultural differences may be smaller than is often argued.     

Materialism as an attempt to cope with uncertainty

Three studies tested the hypothesis that people may turn to materialism when they face uncertainties in modern life. Study 1 showed that anomie and self‐doubt are significant predictors of materialistic orientations; other plausible antecedents have less predictive value. In Study 2, participants experiencing chronic self‐doubt showed a higher level of materialism if they were primed to experience doubt and insecurity. In Study 3, participants with chronic perceptions of anomie showed a higher level of materialism if they were primed with the concept of normlessness. Together, these three studies show that some people turn to materialism when they experience uncertainty within the self (self‐doubt) or perceive uncertainty relating to society (anomie). © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Shopping behaviour among gay men: issues of internalized homophobia and self‐esteem

Connections among internalized homophobia, self‐esteem and various shopping behaviours are investigated. Internalized homophobia, which affects nearly all gay men to some degree, and self‐esteem may affect shopping behaviours such as credit card debt, venue of shopping, enjoyment from shopping, amount of time spent shopping and frequency of shopping. Data from 213 gay men were collected using an Internet‐survey design. Results demonstrate that internalized homophobia has weak to moderate effects on thrift store shopping, discount store shopping and credit card debt. Although self‐esteem did not predict shopping behaviour, it was correlated with shopping enjoyment. Implications, limitations and future research are discussed.     

The social–psychological bases of anticonsumption attitudes

This article proposes that the increasing number of individuals voluntarily reducing their levels of consumption may be motivated by underlying social–psychological stress related to living in a consumer society. Of the three primary motivational bases of the self (esteem, efficacy, and authenticity), it is argued that only self‐esteem and self‐efficacy can be acquired through consumption. The current growth of the voluntary simplicity movement, it is argued, is among those individuals who have met the need for esteem and efficacy through consumption, but have failed to achieve a sense of authenticity. Evidence from interviews with participants in the voluntary simplicity movement is presented in support of this proposition. Anticonsumption attitudes, it is concluded, result from a process of self‐inquiry triggered by the failure to feel authentic through one's consumption activities. Implications of anticonsumption attitudes in reaction to consumer culture are discussed. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.