Innovation and antibiotic use within antibiotic classes: Market incentives and economic instruments

We analyze a monopolist's incentive to innovate a new antibiotic which is connected to the same pool of antibiotic treatment efficacy as is another drug produced by a generic industry. We outline the differences of antibiotic use under market conditions and in the social optimum. A time- and state-dependent tax-subsidy mechanism is proposed to induce the monopolist and generic industry to exploit antibiotic efficacy optimally.     

产学研合作对共性技术研发创新影响的实证检验

以生物技术领域专利为例,采用共性技术专利作为因变量,构建Logit回归模型,实证检验了产学研合作对共性技术研发创新的影响。结果表明：产学研合作对共性技术专利的研发供给具有显著正向影响,且产学研合作共性技术研发明显优于企业单独研发形式。应充分发挥产学研合作的积极作用,实现产业共性技术突破,提升产业竞争力。     

产业共性技术政府支持性研究

基于产业共性技术的公共品特性,政府理应在推动产业共性技术发展中发挥积极作用,这对于加速产业结构升级及创新型国家建设具有重要意义。为了加强政府对产业共性技术发展的支持力度,更好地推动共性技术的创新发展,我国应强化顶层设计,加强产业共性技术创新发展战略规划;完善产业共性技术平台建设,优化共性技术的扩散机制;健全技术经济政策;支持产业共性技术的研发;扩散和应用     

印度仿制药发展的制度因素分析及对我国的借鉴

借鉴其它国家经验可推动我国仿制药的发展。印度仿制药业依靠强有力的制度支持获得了飞速发展,建立了全球范围的竞争优势。分析了印度医药产业制度变迁与产业发展之间的关系：印度医药制度变迁大致经历了3个阶段,其中专利法规、外国投资管制政策、价格管制制度是3个最重要的制度因素。同时,通过对比分析,明晰了我国与印度医药制度之间的差异。最后,借鉴印度仿制药发展的经验,为推动我国仿制药高质量发展提出了建议。     

A PCT algorithm for discontinuation of antibiotic therapy is a cost-effective way to reduce antibiotic exposure in adult intensive care patients with sepsis

Abstract

Objective:

Procalcitonin (PCT) is a specific marker for differentiating bacterial from non-infective causes of inflammation. It can be used to guide initiation and duration of antibiotic therapy in intensive care unit (ICU) patients with suspected sepsis, and might reduce the duration of hospital stay. Limiting antibiotic treatment duration is highly important because antibiotic over-use may cause patient harm, prolonged hospital stay, and resistance development. Several systematic reviews show that a PCT algorithm for antibiotic discontinuation is safe, but upfront investment required for PCT remains an important barrier against implementation. The current study investigates to what extent this PCT algorithm is a cost-effective use of scarce healthcare resources in ICU patients with sepsis compared to current practice.     

Strategic delay in market entry

Abstract.  Two firms are contemplating entry into a market that is viable for only one firm in a good state. We show that even if each firm receives a signal that perfectly reveals a good state, both might strategically delay entry, owing to the fear that the other firm might enter in the same period as well. We also find the conditions where the informed firm will let the rival firm know about the market's profitability and the two will merge to enter the market. We discuss the applications of this model to the oil industry and the generic drug industry.     

制造业共性技术研发协同知识链及知识流动模型

多主体模块化协同是制造业共性技术研发的主流创新模式，协同知识链的运行绩效决定着协同研发绩效和组织竞争能力。构建了共性技术研发模块化协同的过程模型、基于共性技术研发业务流程的模块主体协同知识链模型以及协同知识链的知识流动模型，探讨了协同知识链知识流动的若干运行机理,分析了协同知识链中需要研究的关键技术，以期为我国制造业共性技术研发知识链管理提供借鉴。     

产业共性技术组织与开发的实施方案研究

共性技术急需创新机制。基于共性技术的本质特点,在产业共性技术研究开发中采取政府指导下的市场化运作模式,政府重在规划指导和政策引导,建立有利于产业共性技术开发的知识产权制度安排,实施吸收创新和自主创新相结合的产业共性技术开发战略,进一步完善产业共性技术创新的制度环境。     

An Empirical Analysis of the Political Economy of Tariffs

We seek to analyze the determinants of senatorial response to "generic" trade bills that seek to impose restrictions on the lowering of tariffs. The analysis is based on the response of senators to the trade expansion acts of 1962 and 1974. In the recent past these have been the only bills that are "generic" in nature since they are not targeted at any particular industry. Within the same framework we also examine the issue of "legislator shirking", a term used to imply the response of senators based on pure personal ideology rather than the interests of the constituents. Regression results show the growing influence of state specific factors and the diminishing role of party and personal ideology on senatorial response. Interestingly, we find that despite the similar generic nature of the two bills examined, the influence of personal ideology on the response of senators varies across the two bills examined.     

产业共性技术扩散三阶段模型构建与仿真研究

结合产业共性技术相关理论与技术扩散模型，以政府作用为调节变量，构建产业共性技术扩散的三阶段仿真模型，对产业共性技术扩散三阶段演化特征进行探讨，借助Matlab平台对主体采纳行为和共性技术扩散速度进行仿真，并以我国新能源汽车产业共性技术扩散为例对仿真结果进行实证检验。研究结果表明：产业共性技术扩散先后经历了权威决策、二次创新以及附随扩散3个阶段;产业共性技术扩散的企业采纳比例遵循“S”型曲线规律，而产业共性技术扩散速度出现了“上升-下降-再上升”的“N”型走势;直接采纳二次研发成果的企业，对产业共性技术扩散影响较大;政府在整个产业共性技术扩散过程中发挥关键作用，但在扩散不同阶段政府介入方式与程度会有所差异;二次创新投入比例与成功率影响产业共性技术扩散规模和速度;只有将产业共性技术转化成专有技术或新产品，才能实现共性技术有效扩散。     

产业技术创新战略联盟的性质、分类与政府支持

产业技术创新战略联盟是合作研发的组织模式之一,承载着产业发展的目标,通过合作研发取得产业共性技术,并在联盟和全行业中扩散,最终实现产业竞争力的提升。产业共性技术的复杂性和准公共品性质、联盟合作创新的困境,决定了政府支持产业技术创新战略联盟的必要性。产业技术创新战略联盟有多种类型,政府应针对不同类型的联盟提供不同的支持。在明确产业技术创新战略联盟的内涵及性质的基础上,按照3个维度对其进行了分类,并借鉴国外经验给出了当前我国政府提供政策支持的建议。     

Generic medicine pricing in Europe: current issues and future perspective

Abstract

This editorial discusses a number of trends affecting the pricing of generic medicines in Europe. With respect to pricing, recent evidence has emerged that European generic medicine manufacturers face competition from Indian manufacturers; that the price level of generic medicines varies substantially between European countries; and that generic medicine manufacturers engage in competition by discount rather than price competition in France, The Netherlands and the UK. These trends suggest that there may be scope for further reducing the prices of generic medicines in several countries.

In relation to reference pricing, most European countries have incorporated market incentives within reference pricing systems with a view to promoting price competition. The European experience indicates that the generic medicines industry delivers competitive prices under a reference pricing system if demand-side policies are in place that stimulate physicians, pharmacists and patients to use generic medicines.

Finally, caution needs to be exercised when focusing on the drivers of generic medicine pricing as these drivers not only vary between countries, but may also vary within a country. Manufacturers of originator and generic medicines do not take a single pricing approach following patent expiry, but vary their pricing strategy from molecule to molecule.     

Co-creation as a risk-sharing strategy for the development of innovative EUV lithography technology in the semiconductor industry

Co-creation is becoming an innovative way for new technology development (NTD). We propose a four-staged co-creation model drawn upon a backdrop of ‘knowledge cloud’ for value creation and long-term customer commitment resulting in risk-sharing associated with NTD. The model is elaborated through the case of a leading semiconductor lithography equipment manufacturer (ASML) developing a new extreme ultraviolet lithography technology by engaging the major stakeholders in customer co-investment programme. The model is generic and applicable to any technology-driven industry and may include more stakeholders of same or allied technology.     

Infratechnologies and the role of government

Government support of technological change is a complex issue because barriers resulting in underinvestment exist to some degree in most industries, so difficult allocation decisions for limited government resources are necessary. The structure and timing of government support is further complicated because in any one technological area, the nature and severity of underinvestment phenomena vary during the evolution or life cycles of the relevant industries. This paper focuses on the methods and rationale for government support of two elements in industrial technology: generic technology, from which specific products and processes (i.e., innovations) are derived, and “infratechnologies,” which are necessary for the evolution of the generic technology and its applications. Particular emphasis is given to infratechnologies because they are largely supplied by sources outside the industry and have consequently been largely overlooked in previous discussions of industrial policy. A case study of one major source of infratechnology, including quantitative estimates of industry impacts, is presented.     

半导体产业共性技术供给研究——基于日、美、欧典型共性技术研发联盟的案例比较

本文以日本、美国和欧洲的三家具有代表性的、典型的半导体产业共性技术研发联盟VLSI、SE-MATECH和IMEC为研究对象,通过案例比较分析,结合不同联盟形成的产业环境和政策背景,总结出三家联盟在服务对象、组织结构与模式、研发投入、研发与运作模式等方面的异同,以期为我国半导体产业共性技术研发联盟的组建和运作提供借鉴。     

How complicated skin and soft tissue infections are treated in Italy: economic evaluation of inpatient intravenous antibiotic treatment in seven hospitals

Abstract

Objectives: Complicated skin and soft tissue infections (cSSTIs) are a common cause of morbidity at hospital level. This study aimed to evaluate the costs and outcomes of inpatient intravenous antibiotic therapy for the treatment of cSSTI in seven Italian hospitals.

Methods: A total of 307 patients were enrolled in a retrospective, multicentre, incidence-based, observational study. The target population consisted of hospitalised patients eligible to receive intravenous antibiotic therapy for cSSTI. Direct hospital costs were measured through a microcosting approach.

Results: Failure of initial antibiotic therapy occurred in 23% of patients. Average antibiotic treatment lasted 12.2 days; the average full cost of admission totalled €5,530. If the initial antibiotic regimen fails to eradicate the infectious organism, the length of stay extends for 7 days and costs increase by €2,850 per patient. Nevertheless, when taking into account the lower intensity of care during the last days of treatment, savings reduce costs to €671 per patient. These could be increased by €74 for each hospital day avoided because of faster antibiotic action.

Conclusions: Efforts should be made to minimise the risk of selecting wrong antibiotics and to identify the quickest antibiotic in eradicating the infection.     

INTEGER PRICING AND BERTRAND-EDGEWORTH OLIGOPOLY WITH STRICTLY CONVEX COSTS: IS IT WORTH MORE THAN A PENNY?

In this paper we analyse the implications of integer pricing for Bertrand Edgeworth oligopoly with strictly convex costs. When price is a continuous variable, there is a generic non-existence of pure-strategy equilibrium. In the case of integer pricing, this is not so. We characterize a set of possible single price equilibria around the competitive price, which if non-empty will constitute the set of single price equilibria if the industry is large enough. Furthermore, we provide an example in which the highest equilibrium price can be arbitrarily far from the competitive price.     

A cost-minimisation analysis comparing different antibiotic regimens used in treating all-cause bacterial pneumonia in Hong Kong

Abstract

Background: To find out the antibiotic treatment regimens with the lowest cost for all-cause bacterial pneumonia, a study to compare the costs of different antibiotic regimens in the treatment of patients diagnosed with all-cause bacterial pneumonia who required hospitalisation was carried out.

Methodology: This was a multicentre, retrospective study of patient medical records. The primary aim was to examine whether the initial choice of antibiotic had affected the total cost of treatment, while the secondary aim was to find out whether the initial choice of antibiotic had affected the initial treatment failure rates and death rates. A cost-minimisation analysis (CMA) from a public hospital perspective was employed.

Results: A total of 333 patient medical case notes were reviewed. The most commonly prescribed antibiotic regimen was amoxycillin-clavulanate (AC) followed by amoxycillin-clavulanate plus macrolide (ACM) and quinolone (Q). In the study population, no statistical significance could be detected between the mean cost of the three regimens. In the subgroup analysis of patients with a history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and patients with a history of smoking, the Q regimen appeared to be the least expensive.

Conclusion: In the study population, no significant difference could be identified between the mean cost of the three antibiotic regimens. In a special populations such as patients with a history of COPD and patients with a history of smoking, the Q regimen appeared to be superior. Further studies in these areas are needed.     

Cross ownership of wireline and wireless communications carriers: synergy or collusion?

This paper examines whether the ‘cross ownership’ of wireline and wireless communications carriers is socially beneficial or harmful, and therefore should be allowed or regulated. We analyze a generic model of cross ownership of the firms which produce different but inter-related services. We show that, first, if both of the wireline and wireless industries are monopolistic, cross ownership results in social gains when the two services are complements, and social losses when they are substitutes. Secondly, if the wireless industry is sufficiently competitive, there’s little or no welfare loss from cross ownership. Finally, we briefly address the effect of network externality on the welfare consequences of cross ownership.     

比利时微电子研究中心30年发展概析及其启示

比利时微电子研究中心(IMEC)用30年时间,从一个地方性微电子研究中心发展成为欧洲最大、世界领先的产业共性技术研发组织,探索走出了一条独特的可持续发展道路。在系统梳理IMEC发展历程的基础上,重点研究了IMEC研究方向、组织结构、研究模式、经费收支、人员构成、成果转化和地区作用,分析了IMEC发展成功的主要经验,包括:选择产业共性技术研究方向,构建稳定开放式研发平台,获得政府长期持续资助,开展广泛国际合作,采用利益共享的商业模式及坚持中立性原则等。借鉴IMEC的成功经验,我国半导体产业需要像IMEC这种组织来聚合产业力量,增强产业活力;应采取IMEC典型的经济实惠模式;应构建类似于IMEC的开放式产业共性技术研发平台,以实现符合产业与市场规律的可持续发展的效果。