Female labour force participation in an era of organizational and technological change

Abstract The supply of skilled female labour increased significantly at the beginning of the twentieth century as women assumed positions in the newly created clerical workforce. Evidence suggests that despite this increase in labour supply, the wage paid to female clerical workers increased over the period and that the ratio of female clerical wages to male manufacturing wages was roughly constant. These labour market facts can be accounted for in a dynamic general equilibrium model in which an exogenous increase in human capital induces an increase in demand for skilled clerical workers. While induced technological change that favours skilled workers may account for the observed increase in female real wages, explaining the stagnate relative weekly wages paid to female clerical workers requires a framework that includes organizational change.     

Exporting firms and the demand for skilled tasks

This paper explores the link between exports and the demand for skilled tasks. Using the Chilean Encuesta Nacional Industrial Anual (ENIA), an annual census of manufacturing firms, we first show that Chilean exporters utilize more skills than Chilean non‐exporters. More importantly, we establish a distinct pattern of task differentiation among exporters both within skilled and unskilled tasks. Exporting firms demand the services of skilled specialized workers (engineers) as opposed to skilled administrative workers and managers. In addition, exporters demand less unskilled labour, especially blue‐collar operatives. This suggests that exporters substitute skilled engineers for unskilled blue‐collar workers to perform export‐related tasks.     

The causes and consequences of occupational segregation: a simultaneous equations approach

Lewis and Shorten (Applied Economics, 1991, 23, 167–77) have proposed that male and female earnings, male and female labour force participation rates and occupational segregation are simultaneously determined in the labour market. They estimate their model for Australia using 1981 Census data and find substantial evidence to support their hypothesis. However, there have been no subsequent studies to empirically test their hypothesis for other countries. In this paper their model for the United States using 1990 Census data is replicated. All but one of the coefficients on the endogenous variables have the same signs as those reported by Lewis and Shorten, which tends to support their model. The specification of Lewis and Shorten's model is tested and it is inappropriate for the US data. The model is then reformulated and re-estimated. The reformulated model also shows substantial evidence of simultaneity between occupational segregation and other labour market outcomes.     

On factor proportions as a guide to the future composition of developing country exports

A previously widely quoted study by Hal Lary (Imports of Manufactures from: Less Developed Countries) concluded that labour intensity should, under the postulates of the factor-proportions model, be useful for anticipating the future composition of LDC exports. In this paper, we empirically evaluate the utility of labour intensity as such a guide. As a first test recent changes in developing countries' market shares for Lary's labour intensive products are compared with those for other items. With few exceptions, the export performance for labour intensive goods was superior. Overall, the LDCs increased their market share for these products in spite of a generally declining competitive position in world trade. Separate (correlation) tests indicate that a direct relation exists between the degree of labour intensity of individual products and changes in developing countries' market shares. That is, the LDCs made the greatest gains in the most labour intensive products.Since labour intensity was shown to provide a guide to changes in developing country exports, we examined its implications for the future. Specifically, the National Bureau's indices of value added per employee were updated to gain insights into the probable composition of LDC trade in the 1980s. The results suggest that many of the products previously identified as being labour intensive, and therefore suitable for production and export by developing countries, would also be classified as likely LDC export items on the basis of 1976 production data. In fact, textiles, footwear, and furniture became relatively more labour intensive which suggests that the LDCs will put increased competitive pressure on developed country producers of these products over the next decade. However, our statistics also show that some miscellaneous manufactures and processed foods became more capital intensive. This indicates that LDCs may be losing their competitive edge in these products and are less likely to make sizeable market share gains in the future.     

Re-employment after Retrenchment: Evidence from the TCF Industry Study

Industry Commission inquiries into the passenger motor vehicle and textiles clothing and footwear (TCF) industries have focused attention on the employment prospects of workers who are displaced as a result of structural change. The fact that older and less skilled workers face considerable difficulty finding new employment is now widely recognised. In this paper we examine the post-retrenchment outcomes for workers retrenched from jobs in the TCF sector. The method of analysis–discrete-time event history analysis–improves on previous studies of post-retrenchment out-comes because labour market conditions are incorporated into the statistical model, redressing the over-emphasis on supply-side issues that characterise previous research. The analysis shows that local and national labour market conditions are important determinants of employment outcomes. Personal characteristics, household circumstances and ascribed skill are also important as employers use these attributes to filter potential recruits. The analysis suggests that the utility of retraining is variable, enhancing the employability of workers with the best prospects (based on their personal characteristics and skills) before taking up retraining but decreasing the employment chances of those with poorer prospects.     

Labour market segmentation and union wage gaps

Abstract

There has been a great deal of research regard the effects of unions on union – non-union wage gap. Most of the studies regarding the impact of unions on wages have assumed that apart from the division between union and non-union workers, the labour market is relatively homogeneous. A number of economists, however, have argued that the labour market is segmented, implying that there are distinct labour markets and that some workers employment opportunities are concentrated in “bad jobs” while other workers employment opportunities are concentrated in “good jobs” which are rationed.

This paper will explore whether the relative wage differential between union and non-union workers differs between the independent primary, subordinate primary and secondary labour markets. Labour market segments are defined using “job zones”. “Job zones” are distinct groups defined by the level of specific vocational preparation necessary for a particular occupation, allowing for the comparison of skill levels and training for each occupation. The data on “job zones” comes from the Occupational Information Network database (O?Net). We estimate separate equations for union and non-union workers in each segment using data from the Current Population Survey and calculate union non-union differentials for each labour market segment. The findings of this paper suggest that the greatest differentials are in secondary labour markets followed by differentials in the subordinate primary labour market and that the smallest wage differentials are in the independent primary labour market.     

Small Sawmills in Estonia

Government support of industry in transition economies needs to be judged by the industry's potential to become self-supporting. Government assistance should be designed with this goal in mind. The case of small sawmills in Estonia is a good illustration of this. Estonia's priorities for economic development include promotion of exports, small business and regional development. Small sawmills satisfy all three priorities but the industry's long run viability is in doubt. Current cost advantages depend on cheap raw material, labour and electricity, which are likely to disappear or be reduced with EU membership or further economic reform. Long run viability could emerge if producers cooperate in purchasing raw material, securing access to credit and marketing and adopt a niche market approach. Government can assist by providing export market support, credit access, a revised auction system for roundwood, retraining and extension programs and assistance in financing the set-up of joint-use production facilities. But such assistance, except for structural changes to promote competition and export marketing support, should all be temporary if the industry is ultimately to compete in the Western Europe market.     

General training and oligopsony

I consider a duopsony model of a general skilled labour market. The source of the market power of the firms is the mobility cost of the workers. In the model general training is inefficient and the firms bear a share of the general training cost. If capital market imperfections prevent workers from investing in human capital, the imperfect competition in the skilled labour market compared with the perfect competition promotes general training. In order to remove the inefficiency of personnel training it is necessary to link together a minimum wage for skilled workers and loans to apprentices.     

Gender,Decent Work,and Global Production Sharing in Indonesian Manufacturing

Abstract:

Global commodity chains reflect and affect gendered labor markets. This article uses the Decent Work framework from the International Labour Organization to analyze employment outcomes for Indonesian workers in manufacturing. This research investigates trends in feminized manufacturing sectors in variously sized firms. Regression analyses is used to evaluate how firm characteristics related to global production sharing effect decent work outcomes for women and men, as well as female share of employment itself. The results suggest that exports and FDI affect men and women differently and that feminization and decent work outcomes depend on how the sector is positioned along the global value chain.     

Foreign capital inflow,skilled–unskilled wage inequality and unemployment of unskilled labour in a fair wage model

This paper has developed a three-sector general equilibrium framework that explains unemployment of both skilled and unskilled labour. Unemployment of unskilled labour is of the Harris–Todaro (1970) type while unemployment of skilled labour is caused due to the validity of the FWH in the high-skill sector. There are two types of capital one of which is specific to the primary export sector while the other moves freely among the different sectors. Inflows of foreign capital of either type unambiguously improve the economic conditions of the unskilled working class. However, the effects on the skilled–unskilled wage inequality and the extent of unemployment of both types of labour crucially hinge on the properties implied by the efficiency function of the skilled workers.     

TRADE IMPACTS ON SKILL ACQUISITION VIA VARIETY EXPANSION*

We show that trade enhances skill formation through gains from trade via variety expansion à la Krugman. Although workers are identical as unskilled labour, they differ in productivity as skilled labour. Workers become skilled by incurring training costs. By introducing these settings into a trade model with monopolistic competition, we show that, although trade makes all agents better off, its effect is stronger for skilled than unskilled workers, which stimulates skill acquisition. As a result of less productive workers becoming skilled, the wage dispersion among skilled workers increases.     

OVERSEAS NETWORK OF EXPORT PROMOTION AGENCY AND EXPORT PERFORMANCE: THE KOREAN CASE

Governments have established export promotion agencies (EPAs) in an effort to boost exports. Despite criticism regarding the effectiveness of EPAs, the policy has not been abandoned and there has been an increasing recognition of the benefits on the basis of economic justification, including market failures. Such policies must be based strictly on evidence. Are EPAs truly crucial for export success? Some have argued that export success in Korea has been due largely to government policies targeted at the promotion of exports. This paper demonstrates that the network of EPA offices abroad has been a critical factor in the success of Korea's exports. An increase of 10% in the budget of EPA's overseas offices has been shown to increase exports by 2.45%–6.34%. The findings of this paper present a clear rationale for government intervention. (JEL F10, F14)     

Immigration and domestic wage: an empirical study on competition among immigrants

While studies on the wage effects of immigration focus on native workers, there is significantly less information on the wage effects of immigration on domestic foreign-born workers. In addition to analysing the impact of immigration on wages of native workers, in this article, we estimate the internal competition among foreign-born workers in the United States. Firstly, using data from the Current Population Survey, we find no empirical evidence supporting the substitutability of native workers for immigrants. Secondly, there is no statistical difference between skilled and unskilled immigrants on the influence of the domestic labour market outcomes. Finally, there is no internal competition among immigrants. The income of non-citizen workers mainly depends on state and national levels of economic situations, not the number of non-citizen workers available in the labour market.     

Wage and Mobility Effects of Trade and Migration on the Austrian Labour Market

This study analyses the effect of trade and migration on wages and labour marketmobility. We estimate wage growth equations and a multinomial logit mobilityequation on an individual data set ranging from 1991 to 1994. We find substantialdifferences in the reactions of white and blue-collar workers wages and mobilityto trade and migration. In Austria exports have a positive and imports a negativeimpact on wage growth only for blue-collar workers. Migrants also reduce onlyblue-collar workers wage growth. Our results indicate that higher imports and aninflow of migrants reduce sectoral mobility of all types workers. The risk of beingout of work by contrast is increased by migration and imports only for blue-collarworkers, but reduced by exports for all types of workers. In general our results suggestenlargement of the EU would have only small effects on the Austrian labour market.     

Skilled and unskilled wage dynamics in Italy in the 1990s: changes in individual characteristics,institutions, trade and technology

In this paper, we use individual micro data on workers combined with industry and regional data to study the wage dynamics of skilled and unskilled workers in Italy in the 1991–1998 period. In contrast to previous empirical studies, our data make it possible to analyse, within a single framework, the role of many of the factors indicated in the literature as possible determinants of skilled and unskilled wage dynamics: changes in the individual characteristics of workers, changes in labour market institutions, increasing international integration, and skill‐biased technological progress. Our results show that international integration, both in terms of trade in goods and in terms of international labour mobility, plays a role in determining the wage dynamics of skilled (white‐collar) and unskilled (blue‐collar) workers. Moreover, in line with labour economics research, our findings show that the individual characteristics of workers and the institutional variables are more relevant in explaining skilled and unskilled wage dynamics than wage differentials.     

Wage inequality and skill supplies in a globalised world

We investigate empirically, and explain theoretically, how the relative wages of skilled and unskilled workers vary with their relative supplies in open economies. Our results combine the insights of simple labour market and trade models. In countries that trade, relative wages respond inversely to variation in skill supplies, but the response decreases with the degree of openness to trade and is small in very open countries. To reconcile our results with standard estimates of the elasticity of substitution between skilled and unskilled workers, we allow also for the influence of directed technical change and income elasticity of demand for skill-intensive goods.     

The Dynamic Effects of the US Productivity Boom on Australia*

How has the USA's ‘new economy’ productivity boom affected Australia? We consider this question using a dynamic multisector growth model of the Australian and US economies. We find that productivity growth in the US durables sector generates small but important gains to Australia. We find that the transmission of growth is generated through increased export demand for agriculture. Consequently, the USA's productivity growth tends to favour Australia's traditional export sectors. Likewise, it increases the relative demand for less skilled labour in Australia and reduces the demand for more skilled labour and higher education.     

Trends in Disaggregated Import and Export Prices in Europe: Implications for the Trade and Wages Debate

We consider carefully the evidence from traded prices (as proxied by unit values) concerning the transmission of the effects of globalisation to domestic labour markets. Using standard index number techniques we decompose changes in sectoral import and export unit values into movements due to changes in pure prices of the initial bundle of goods imported or exported and changes due to upgrading of that bundle. Looking at the imports of selected European countries of textiles, clothing and footwear relative to engineering products we find evidence of strongly falling pure prices of the unskilled intensive products relative to the skilled products in the 1980s. This reinforces the view that import prices can capture the impact of globalisation in terms of falling relative prices for products produced with the intensive use of unskilled labour. However, the trends are not common across all the unskilled sectors; footwear is clearly an exception. In the absence of detailed domestic data, we look for reactions by domestic firms to increased import competition in movements in the price and composition of exports. We find evidence of stiff price competition from imports being associated with similar movements in export prices and no support for the view that import competition from low–wage countries has led to upgrading of the quality of exports.     

Trade and inequality in a directed search model with firm and worker heterogeneity

This paper integrates the insight that exporting firms are typically more productive and employ higher‐skilled workers into a directed search model of the labour market. The model generates a skill premium as well as residual wage inequality among identical workers. A trade liberalization increases the skill premium and likely increases residual inequality among high‐skilled workers. The calibrated model generates results consistent with the prior literature examining the effect of the Canada‐US Free Trade Agreement on the Canadian labour market: a significant decrease in employment in manufacturing, but only a small change in unemployment and wages.     

Labour market programmes and the equity-efficiency trade-off

This paper studies optimal labour market policy in a society where differently gifted individuals can invest in training to further increase their labour market productivity and where the government seeks both efficiency and equity. Frictions in the matching process create unemployment and differently skilled workers face different levels of risk of unemployment. We show that in such an environment, training programmes that are targeted at the disadvantaged workers complement passive transfers (UI benefits), unlike general training subsidies. Combining passive subsidies with a training subsidy conditioned on the individual being unemployed (for a period) – the typical Active Labour Market Programme – creates a favourable trade-off between equity and efficiency and this encourages high spending on training.