Agriculture, pesticides and the ecosystem

Economists have a good understanding of intra-economic interdependence and a mature methodology of modelling it. Ecologists focus on the complex and sensitive interactions of species in ecosystems. This paper’s objective is to suggest a new micro-foundation of ecosystem analysis based on economic methodology, to integrate the analyses of the ecosystem and the economy and focus on the interface of ecosystem-economy relations. Agriculture forms a major part of this interface. The basic assumption is that in the short run the individual organisms of all species behave as if they optimise their costly offensive and defensive activities given other organisms’ activities (Nash-behaviour).We consider an ecosystem with three species in a unidirectional food chain: buzzards feed on mice, mice feed on grain, and grain feeds on solar energy. A fourth species, humans, also feeds on grain. Humans intervene in the ecosystem in various ways. They can grow grain by using seed, farm labour, pesticides and possibly nature conservation measures to maintain buzzard habitat. Short-run ecosystem equilibrium is characterised, and it is shown, in particular, how this equilibrium depends on farming activities. We then link this ecosystem model to a simple model of an agricultural economy. Both systems are solved for equilibrium simultaneously. From an economic perspective the ecosystem induces positive and negative externalities in agricultural production and in consumer ‘green’ preferences.The inefficiencies of the competitive economy are identified and some possibilities to restore efficiency through corrective taxes or subsidies are briefly discussed. We also outline how short-run equilibria are connected through ecosystem stock-flow relationships. Due to the complexity of the inter-temporal analysis, the resulting ecosystem dynamics cannot be characterised in general analytical terms. It is a topic for future research to study the dynamics in numerical analysis to understand under which conditions the joint ecological and economic system is driven toward a (sustainable) steady state.     

GENERIC PROMOTION OF BEEF: MEASURING THE IMPACT OF THE US BEEF CHECKOFF

Generic promotions of commodities are growing in importance. In the US, commodity industry assessments or checkoffs (i.e. a per unit levy or tax) are used to underwrite domestic and international promotions by commodity groups. The US beef checkoff is one of the largest of these new national commodity programmes. Evaluation of the economic impact of the beef promotion is an essential part of the beef checkoff. A model for evaluating the US beef programmes is estimated and the methodology is applicable to other commodity models that include advertising and promotion expenditures. The beef analysis shows a positive and significant return to the beef industry, with an average of approximately $5 for each $1 invested for the quarters 1987:1 through 1991:2.     

土地资源错配与经济波动──基于中国地级市数据的实证分析

研究目的:分析土地资源错配对经济波动的影响。研究方法:在土地资源错配对经济波动影响的理论分析基础上,利用中国地级市数据,实证检验土地资源错配对经济波动的影响。研究结果:(1)短期来看,土地资源错配对经济波动有着显著的负向影响;长期来看,土地资源错配对经济波动有着显著的正向影响。(2)短期土地资源错配对经济波动的负向影响,主要通过降低密度边际波动与降低扩展边际波动来实现;长期对经济波动的正向影响,主要通过增大密度边际波动来实现。研究结论:虽然在短期土地资源错配能够稳定经济增长,减缓经济波动,但是从长期来看,土地资源错配会导致服务业发展滞后,不利于地区创新能力提升,从而降低经济的稳定性,容易引发经济波动。     

Mapping spatial patterns of urban agriculture in Rome (Italy) using Google Earth and web-mapping services

Urban agriculture (UA) has been acknowledged for several positive effects such as access to fresh food, human activities moderation, agro-biodiversity and social and cultural relationships. In the city of Rome due to social and economic trends this kind of activity is spreading, but so far very few attempts have been addressed to inventorying the UA areas (e.g., community gardens, residential gardens, school gardens, illegal vegetable gardens, urban farms, etc.). Some mapping experiences have been carried out but all lack of a well-established methodology to be applied for a complete inventory. In this paper we propose a conceptual framework and methodology for mapping the UA in Rome through Earth Observation techniques by using the concepts of photointerpretation and the features of the most used web-mapping services. Google Earth has been used as a basic tool for visual interpretation and polygon digitalization, while other services have been used for the availability of additional features (e.g., the oblique view of Microsoft Bing Maps). The integration of the web-mapping services combined with ancillary data improved the UA site detection, allowing to define both the land use and the UA typologies. We argue that the integration of the web-mapping services for building urban agricultural land use datasets is cost-effective compared to processing commercial remote sensing images. The inventory can enable administrators to perform analysis about the interactions between agricultural activities and the urban environment, and to enact informed policies for green and vacant urban spaces management.     

Returns to Farm-Level Soil Conservation on Tropical Steep Slopes: The Case of the Eritrean Highlands

This study conducts an economic analysis of investment in simple soil conservation technologies in the highlands of Eritrea. The data used in the analysis were obtained from a farm survey and supplemented with data from secondary sources. Risk analysis techniques are used to take account of the uncertainties regarding the relationship between soil erosion and crop yield. The financial analysis reveals negative net present values (NPV_s) and internal rates of return (IRR_s) below 12 per cent for various slope categories. On the other hand, the economic analysis returns positive NPV_s and IRR_s of over 20 per cent. The results clearly indicate that investment in soil conservation technology may not be a viable short-term proposition from the farmer's point of view and yet the net social benefits are positive. There is a strong case for government to provide incentives for soil conservation in view of the economic benefits.     

The political economy of agriculture for development today: the “small versus large” scale debate revisited

The role of agriculture in economic development and the development politics of promoting smallholder versus large‐scale agriculture have both been at the center of a long‐lasting and controversial debate. Using an innovative methodology which combines a value chain approach with input‐output‐analysis, the growth multipliers and productivity of both farm types in Guatemala are analyzed. Results show that smallholder agriculture has the same potential to stimulate output growth as large‐scale agriculture. Smallholder value chains include mainly informal sectors and create more jobs than commercial agriculture. Therefore, a reorientation of agricultural and land policies toward small‐scale food producers and within a comprehensive policy of integrated rural development is not only necessary in terms of social equity but also for boosting economic development.     

Measuring the Costs and Trade Effects of Phytosanitary Protocols: A U.S.–Japanese Apple Example

This article investigates the trade impact of Japan's decision in 2005 to revise its phytosanitary protocol for fire blight for U.S. apple imports but retain its codling moth protocol. The analysis presents a participation model to measure the economic costs of phytosanitary barriers to trade. The model provides an explicit cost of the phytosanitary barriers in terms of the structure of the protocols, an important advantage over the price-wedge methodology. This makes it possible to separate the economic costs of various protocols—in this case, the fire blight and codling moth protocols.     

PRODUCTION-ORIENTED INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR AGRICULTURAL SUBSECTORS: PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

The existence of problems which are peculiar to agricultural subsectors explains the presence of organisations associated with individual commodities or commodity groups. Modern developments in information systems can contribute to meeting organisations' information requirements, but it is necessary to design systems consistent with both the principles and techniques of economic analysis and the general methodology. Following the definition of a subsector, a review of the principles for information systems and the relevant economic concepts shows the formal equivalence of many basic ideas. Despite reservations which have been expressed about the current potential for quantitative techniques, an input/output approach could have an important role as a flexible component of subsector information systems.     

Social involvement in environmental governance: The relevance of quality assurance processes in forest planning

Socio-environmental policy issues are characterized by inherent scientific uncertainty, ignorance and frequently by social discrepancies. Lack of recognition of the complexity and uncertainty of environmental issues has given rise to problems that have cast doubt on the adequacy of the science for policy model and traditionally employed evidence-based policy, thus leading to a crisis in science. In this context, there is a need for quality assurance procedures to assess policies and measures resulting from decision-making in environmental governance issues.Involving quality assurance in decision-making processes recognizes the different types of uncertainty related to an issue and the limits of problem-solving analysis. This approach requires participatory methodological frameworks in which stakeholders analyze the robustness of the assessment process used as well as the validity of assessment results. The approach considers governance as being a relative term depending on the historical, social, economic, political, environmental and cultural context in which it is developed.A participatory methodology is applied to an assessment of forest track alternatives on the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands). In this study, a social sensitivity analysis explores the social validity of this assessment through the concept of quality understood as ‘fitness for use’. Such a methodology facilitates processes of dialogue and consensus needed in decision-making in conflictive situations. As a result this methodology should serve as a reference for other places with similar situations.     

Factors affecting NIPF landowner participation in management programs: a Massachusetts case study

Conjoint analysis is used to examine landowner attitudes toward specific management program attributes and requirements. Our results suggest that the majority of respondents are very reluctant to convey landowner rights, such as timber rights or public access, without unrealistic levels of compensation ($ 53 to $ 185 per hectare per year). This implies the need to develop alternatives to the conventional economic incentive based approach to forest management. It is envisioned that the conjoint methodology used here could readily be applied to study landowner decision making in other countries.     

海洋渔业与海洋经济发展相关性的实证研究——以山东省为例

截取山东省1996—2010年海洋渔业与海洋经济发展的相关数据,通过单位根检验、协整检验和格兰杰检验对海洋渔业与海洋经济发展的相关性进行实证分析,结果显示山东省海洋渔业与海洋经济之间存在稳定的长期均衡关系,并呈现单向因果关系,山东省海洋经济的发展对海洋渔业发展具有正向促进作用,而海洋渔业的发展则不是海洋经济发展的格兰杰原因。     

森林碳汇项目有助于减贫吗?

基于2005—2014年大兴安岭图强林业局碳汇造林项目的项目地潮河林场、奋斗林场、二十八站林场和育英林场的数据,建立结构方程模型对森林碳汇项目促进减贫的影响因素及其之间的关系进行实证分析。结果表明:森林碳汇项目通过促进社会就业情况和经济情况有助于减缓贫困,并且社会就业情况在减贫影响上比经济状况贡献度高;而森林碳汇项目造林阶段的造林面积对减缓贫困在一定程度上呈正相关关系。通过结果分析表明只有基于内生发展动力和贫困人口的自我发展能力的森林碳汇项目开发设计,由"输血型"模式变为"造血型"模式,才能更好地实现应对气候变化和缓解贫困两个目标。     

Economic development and the role of agricultural technology

In earlier debates on economic development, the agricultural sector's role was somewhat controversial. While dualistic models highlighted the importance of agriculture, the mainstream literature placed a greater emphasis on the creation of a modern industrial sector. Soon agriculture disappeared from the mainstream development literature to re‐emerge recently with a variety of multiple‐sector growth models emphasizing the key role of agriculture and specifically technology in agriculture. This article is an empirical cross‐country analysis of agricultural technology's role in economic development. Specifically, the hypothesis being tested is whether improvements in agricultural technology have a significant impact on long‐run economic growth. The results indicate that agricultural modernization has a positive effect on both measures of economic growth and human development.     

Farm‐specific Adjustment Costs in Dutch Pig Farming

This paper develops a dynamic model of investment under rational expectations, assuming farm‐specific production technologies and adjustment cost structures. The model distinguishes regimes of negative, zero and positive investments and maintains that it is optimal for a farmer not to invest for a range of shadow prices, depending on thresholds for positive and negative investments. The model is applied to a rotating sample of Dutch pig farms over the period 1980–1996. Farm‐specific parameters of the adjustment cost function and production technology are obtained using Generalised Maximum Entropy estimation. Cluster analysis using the farm‐specific adjustment cost parameters indicates that five groups of farms with distinct adjustment cost structures can be identified. A tobit regression analysis is used to explain the impact of different socio‐economic factors on the size of the threshold between positive and negative investments.     

基于SWOT—AHP模型的云南省经济林产业发展策略研究

经济林产业作为云南省林业经济中的关键要素,其积极理性发展对整个云南省经济可持续发展具有重大意义。以云南省经济林产业发展策略为研究目标,通过构建12个评价指标,运用SWOT—AHP分析方法系统分析了云南省经济林产业发展的优势、劣势、机遇、威胁,对云南省经济林产业发展现状及策略进行研究证实。研究结果表明:云南省经济林产业目前内部优势明显,但同时内部劣势相对制约其有效发展,为实现其在绿色经济大背景下的适时可持续发展,应采积极发挥自身优势的同时减少劣势影响的发展策略。     

Farmer responses to changing risk aversion,enterprise variability and resource endowments

The focus of this article is on assessing how risk aversion, enterprise variability and resource endowments affect farm land‐use decisions and economic returns. A theoretical model of a two‐enterprise, two‐constraint farm is developed, and then, an empirical illustration for an Australian farm is provided. The methodology used builds on previous expected mean‐variance (EV) models by incorporating land and budget constraints. The Kuhn–Tucker conditions of the EV model are examined to highlight that changes in resource endowments have larger effects on economic returns, than do changes in risk aversion or enterprise gross margin variability. It was also found that combinations of enterprise mixes that do not use all available resources can produce higher economic returns, relative to some enterprise mixes that use all available resources.     

A pluralistic economics methodology for analysing landrace conservation on farms: a case study of Hungarian home gardens

Crop landraces contribute to food security and agricultural research that supports productivity or enhances product quality. The few extant landraces still grown in Hungary are found in home gardens, which are subsistence-oriented, small-scale family farms managed with traditional practices. A pluralistic economics methodology was developed to analyse the prospects of including landraces and home gardens in Hungary's National Rural Development Plan. The methodology draws from three fields of economic inquiry: institutional economics, environmental economics and agricultural economics. Data were collected using qualitative and quantitative approaches from over 300 farmers across 22 communities in three regions. This paper summarizes the methodology and highlights its advantages. A synopsis of findings is also reported.     

The Effects of Transaction Costs,Power and Risk on Contractual Arrangements: A Conceptual Framework for Quantitative Analysis

Increased reliance on commercial traders in liberalised agricultural markets poses questions about the nature of contractual relations between traders and farmers; about welfare, efficiency and equity characteristics of these relations; and about conditions necessary for traders to engage in these markets. A new institutional economics analysis seeks to understand the institutions that affect transaction costs and risks for each party, and power relations between them. Transaction cost analysis has not, however, developed a unifying conceptual or quantitative framework to integrate these issues. This paper develops a methodology for modelling negotiated choice of contractual arrangements in buyer/seller relationships, taking account of the socioeconomic characteristics of each party, economic and technical characteristics of the commodity, and the institutional environment. The model is setup as a non‐linear programming problem. The approach provides a framework for the application of transaction cost economics to quantitative empirical study of markets, to individual firms' supply chain decisions, and to the analysis of policy interventions in markets.     

大连城市化与三大产业发展关系初步探讨

在对城市化进程和经济发展指标13个因子数据选取基础上,进行相关分析并建立模型,对大连城市化进程中的经济发展尤其是产业结构与城市化互动关系进行了阐述：城市化的推进能够提升第二产业并带动第三产业的发展,而产业结构的合理调整将对城市化的发展具有积极的促进作用,依据其互动关系并结合大连城市发展现状,提出大连城市化进程和经济协调发展的对策。     

我国农业机械总动力对农产品出口的动态效应——基于VAR模型的分析

在1981—2013年相关经济数据的基础上,运用向量回归(VAR)模型方法,从实证角度分析了我国农业机械总动力和农产品出口之间的动态关系。各项检验结果表明,我国农业机械总动力和农产品出口之间存在双向因果关系,适合建立向量回归模型。采用VAR模型、脉冲响应分析和方差分析方法,对农业机械总动力和农产品出口之间的动态响应关系进行计量研究,结果表明我国农业机械总动力对我国农产品出口具有长期的正影响。