Leadership preferences of a generation Y cohort: A mixed‐methods investigation

Presently there are four generational cohorts in the workplace. Born from 1977 to 1997, the youngest cohort group, Generation Y, has 81 million members, of whom over 29 million are already in the workplace. The importance of leader‐subordinate relationships in the workplace has been confirmed. In recognizing this, leaders must identify and adapt to the era‐shaped needs of employees, who cannot fully participate in organizational life if their most urgent needs are not being met. The goal of this study was to determine leadership preferences of a Gen Y cohort as a means to enhance workplace relationships in the 21st‐century organization. A sequential, mixed‐methods study was employed to explore leadership preferences of a Gen Y cohort. Initially, focus‐group interviews were used to generate leadership themes. Based on these themes, an instrument was designed, and Gen Y business students from three higher education institutions were surveyed. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to test the themes. Five leadership themes emerged in the focus groups and were confirmed through CFA.     

Value-based performance excellence measurement for higher education institution: instrument validation

The purpose of this article is to construct-validate an instrument of value-based performance excellence measurement for higher education institution (HEI) in Malaysia. The HEI performance is measured using 6 value indicators of leadership, culture, productivity, employee, stakeholders and overall performance. 1,100 questionnaires were distributed and 275 questionnaires were used for analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach was deployed by using analysis of moment structures software. The results for the hypothesised CFA model revealed the fit statistics of CFI = 0.944, TLI = 0.939 and RMSEA = 0.075. In conclusion, the CFA model fitted the data well. Implications of the study was significant to HEI to consider and adapt the value-based assessment approach in university assessment for total excellence.     

An Instrument to Measure Level 5 Leadership

The objective of this research project was to develop a validated scale to measure Level 5 Leadership using the Collins ( 2005 ) Level 5 attributes. An expert panel reduced the 99 attributes from Collins to 74. The 349 participants evaluated their bosses on a 10‐point semantic differential scale for each attribute. A review of the literature suggested that Level 5 leadership and servant leadership represent the same concept; thus the study used a 10‐item servant leadership scale to check for concurrent validity. Additionally, Collins proposed eight untested questions to determine if individuals qualify as Level 5 leaders. Principal component analysis resulted in two factors that explained 55.2% of the variance; these factors matched Collins's proposed personal humility and professional will constructs. The final instrument contains five attributes of personal humility and five attributes of professional will that yield Cronbach alphas of .83 and .83, respectively. The analysis also revealed statistically significant positive relationships between the Level 5 attributes, servant leadership, and a single factor that represented Collins's eight questions.     

Bipolarity and/or duality of social survey measurement scales and the question-order effect

When measuring (complex) attitudes within a social survey, researchers often use balanced lists of positive and negative items. The purpose of the present research is to investigate: (a) whether a specific order of measurement scale items can lead to the bipolar (single-dimensional) concept (attitude) being recognised as a dual (bi-dimensional) concept and vice-versa; and (b) whether item order can affect the consistency (metric characteristics) of a measurement scale. An experiment on a group of social science students was conducted: students were randomly split into three subgroups and three different version of a questionnaire (with three differing item orders) were applied. A multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (‘CFA’) and a single group CFA for each item order separately were applied. The final conclusion of the experiment is that there is no general rule about how and when respondents form separate (dual) or unidimensional (continuous) representations of measured concepts. Item-order effects are possible, but they are not as important as one would expect. The results of the experiment also suggest that other factors should be taken into account: the content of the measured concept and the cognitive sophistication of the respondents.     

Public thinking about poverty: why it matters and how to measure it

• Meeting the Millennium Development Goals partly depends on not‐profit organizations raising more funds, which in turn depends on having reliable and valid assessments of where donor and recipient perceptions are out‐of‐line. Across samples from a developed economy Australia (n = 754), and a developing economy Mala?i (n = 387), we explored the factor structure of the ‘Causes of Third‐World Poverty Questionnaire’ (CTWPQ, D. Harper and colleagues, 1990 ). In addition to four core factors suggested through an original (N = 89) sample from the UK (Blame [1] the Poor, [2] Nature, [3] Third World governments, and [4] International Exploitation), combined Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) differentiate a possible fifth factor germane to the social marketing of aid, blame [5] Conflict. Australians and Mala?ians differed significantly on all five factors, with Mala?ians blaming poverty more on situations and less on the poor themselves, compared to Australian counterparts. Our findings are tentative because the CTWPQ item pool requires expanding to represent underlying constructs more fully. Nonetheless, instruments like the CTWPQ can in future be used to identify and monitor in‐context psychosocial barriers to donation, enabling not‐profit marketing organizations to raise funds more efficiently and effectively.

Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Emotional and Motivational Correlates of Leadership Styles: A Comprehensive Framework for Understanding Effective Leaders

It is widely believed that contemporary leaders must possess highly developed interpersonal, motivational, social, and emotional skills. However, empirical evidence documenting the specific role emotional intelligence (EI) and motivational constructs play in leadership is equivocal to date (e.g., Harms & Crede, 2010; Lindebaum & Cartwright, 2010; Walter, Cole, & Humphrey, 2011). The current study examined a proposed working leadership model based on four distinct leadership styles LSs; i.e., servant, transformational, transactional, and passive/avoidant) that could be viewed on an autonomy‐sophistication continuum based on readiness and strengths of both leaders and followers. Participants included 535 male and female junior college and high school students at a military academy. Cluster analysis (CA) results revealed four unique LS profiles that capture different combinations of the four LS styles. LS profiles were compared on a range of motivational and EI dimensions. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) results revealed support for hypothesized profile differences, including: (a) all three social motivation subscales, (b) both learning and capacity ability beliefs, (c) task but not ego motivational orientation, and (d) three revised EI subscales created when exploratory factor analysis failed to confirm the hypothesized Emotional and Social Competence Inventory factor structure for this cadet sample.     

Measurement invariance: Review of practice and implications

A review of efforts to assess the invariance of measurement instruments across different respondent groups using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is provided for the years since the Vandenberg and Lance [Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4–69.] review. Investigators are more frequently reporting tests of scalar invariance and tests for differences in latent factor means and partial invariance. Efforts have been made to assess, the impact of the choice of a referent indicator in multi-group studies, the appropriateness of forming partials as indicators of a latent construct, the degree of convergence of item response theory and CFA analyses of measurement differences across groups, and the implications of findings of invariance. In this context, a demonstration of the impact of partial invariance on estimated group differences in reliability and means is provided and discussed.     

Interpreting the results of studies using latent variable models to assess data quality: an empirical example using confirmatory factor analysis

Latent variable models (LVMs) offer one route to examine the quality of data collected in surveys. The possibility exists that individuals equivalent in their true level of a construct or variable being measured are unlikely to have equivalent observed responses as a function of an extraneous variable, e.g., group membership. This potential is labeled here as differential item functioning (DIF). Survey methods generally considers measurement bias to be estimators that do no not accurately reflect true values. DIF may be thought of as differential measurement bias, i.e., measurement bias conditional on group membership. As a function of group membership, the degree, amount, or type of measurement bias changes. DIF has the potential to negatively affect the quality of data. LVMs, e.g., confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), offer one tool to assess DIF. However, few published examples exist in the survey research field and training in the interpretation of these models is lacking. The purpose of the current paper is to describe CFA sufficiently for interpretive purposes and demonstrate an empirical application of CFA to assess survey data quality to provide further interpretive guidance. References are provided for analysts wishing to conduct analyses of this type.     

“Why did I do this?”: Understanding leadership behavior through a dynamic five‐factor model of leadership

Leadership theories referring to complex adaptive system theory (CAS) describe leadership as a dynamic process of interdependent, cooperating agents. However, research on leadership behavior focuses mainly on the leader as an influencing, active agent. This article offers a different perspective by focusing on factors that influence leadership behavior. A dynamic five‐factor model of leadership is introduced, which identifies (1) the leader's individual competence, (2) the group, (3) the organization, (4) the context, and (5) the immediate situation as all influencing factors on leadership behavior. To address the problem of the procedural nature of leadership behavior, the dynamic five‐factor model is combined with a scenario‐based approach. The scenario approach focuses on situational developments in a given context, whereby a previous situation influences a leader's behavior in the subsequent situation. By integrating the dynamic five‐factor model into a scenario approach, one can understand a leader's behavior in its procedural nature. The practical usability of the dynamic five‐factor model and the scenario approach was assessed in a leadership development program with 81 military officers. Structured feedback from participants indicated that the model and the approach were perceived as helpful and relevant for understanding leadership behavior.     

Leadership substitutes and personality impact on time and quality in virtual new product development projects

Leadership, personality, and organizational factors were analyzed to measure their combined effect on virtual‐based product development time and scope‐quality performance. Over 1,000 team members were surveyed. MANCOVA was used to test if leadership, personality project, and/or organizational factors impacted performance. All realistic factors were included to detect leadership substitutes moderation, mediation, and prediction. Bias was reduced by not surveying leaders, by using reverse item coding, and by checking social desirability. Experimental control and common method variance were managed by including multilevel and multisource data. Performance was objectively computed from organizational data. The findings were that transactional leadership (not transformational) and some personality attri‐butes (leader substitutes) were significant factors, increasing project scope quality and time performance. This article was published online on September 29, 2010. An error was subsequently identified. This notice is included in the online and print versions to indicate that both have been corrected. See the correction noted on the seventh page of the print version of the article.     

Investigating the Number of Non-linear and Multi-modal Relationships Between Observed Variables Measuring Growth-oriented Atmosphere

This study investigates the number of non-linear and multi-modal relationships between observed variables measuring the Growth-oriented Atmosphere. The sample (N = 726) represents employees of three vocational high schools in Finland. The first stage of analysis showed that only 22% of all dependencies between variables were purely linear. In the second stage two sub samples of the data were identified as linear and non-linear. Both bivariate correlations and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) parameter estimates were found to be higher in the linear sub sample. Results showed that some of the highest bivariate correlations in both sub samples were explained via third variable in the non-linear Bayesian dependence modeling (BDM). Finally, the results of CFA and BDM led in different substantive interpretations in two out of four research questions concerning organizational growth.     

Needs assessment of university leadership programs

Although research indicates that university leadership programs can offer students many extremely valuable outcomes, the overall effectiveness of these programs is highly dependent on their abilty to attract student participants. This study addresses this issue by employing maximum difference scaling (MDS) analysis to determine the needs and preferences of university students with regard to participating in university leadership activities. From this data, four distinct need‐based segments of students are identified and discussed: socializers, leaders, self‐improvers, and job seekers. Suggested strategies are presented to increase particpation within each segment by focusing leadership programs on delivery of those outcomes most desired by each segment.     

Analyzing the Effectiveness of Multisource Feedback as a Leadership Development Tool for College Students

Undergraduate students (n = 144) completed the Socially Responsible Leadership Scale (SRLS), which measures leadership capacity within the framework of the Social Change Model (SCM) of Leadership Development. Observers (n = 374) who knew the students from a variety of contexts completed observer‐report versions of the SRLS. The research was designed to measure differences in rating of capacity between student leaders and those who know and observe their behaviors. Mean observer scores were higher than self‐reported scores for most capacities, with moderate to large effect sizes. Significant differences between self and observer interscale correlations and a high degree of subscale intercorrelations within observer‐reports led to conducting an exploratory factor analysis of observer responses. A universal one‐factor structure emerged that was different from the SCM model, suggesting observers make little distinction among separate leadership capacities in those they observe. Implications for leadership development and education programs are discussed including the benefit of rater training prior to the use of multisource feedback instruments, how the context in which students interact with observers affects feedback, and the need for further examination of other methods of determining effectiveness in conjunction with multisource feedback instruments.     

Middle Manager Leadership and Frontline Employee Performance: Bypass,Cascading, and Moderating Effects

We investigated the relationship between middle managers' transformational leadership and the performance of frontline employees who are two levels below the middle managers. We identified two pathways through which this cross‐level influence occurs and tested two moderators operating on these two pathways. The first pathway is a direct effect from middle managers to employees, bypassing the influence of employees' immediate supervisor (the bypass effect). We further hypothesized that the bypass effect is moderated by the employees' collectivistic value. The second pathway is a cascading of leadership behaviours from middle managers to first‐line supervisors, whose transformational leadership then enhances employees' performance (the cascading effect). We further hypothesized that this cascading effect is moderated by the supervisors' power distance value. These hypotheses were tested with a sample of 491 frontline employees, 98 frontline supervisors, and 30 middle managers in three organizations in China. The three‐level hierarchical linear modelling results supported the four hypotheses.     

Understanding leadership for cross‐cultural knowledge management

This article examines the role of leadership in cross‐cultural knowledge management (CCKM) because both knowledge management and cross‐cultural management are now regarded as popular topics in both academic and practical research in the age of globalization. We discuss the existing literature on the relationship between leadership and cross‐cultural management as well as the relationship between leadership and knowledge management to illustrate the importance of leadership in each field. The concept of cross‐cultural knowledge management—an ambiguous term—will be presented from Nguyen, Umemoto, and Medeni's (2007) work, establishing an expanded role of cross‐cultural management, which could be viewed as a subset of knowledge management. To emphasize the impact of leadership on CCKM, we discuss the influence of leadership on each factor in the theoretical model of CCKM. Our understanding of the role of leadership in CCKM suggests that international leaders should pay careful attention to managing fragmentation, integration, and differentiation when they want to create and manage the cross‐cultural knowledge of their employees.     

Leadership and Innovation: Informal Power and Its Relationship to Innovative Culture

The current article sought to contribute to the literature on leadership and power by exploring two relatively new and less‐examined bases of social power: information power and connection power. Data from 160 employees were collected, and principal component analysis was used to examine the uniqueness of each power source. Support was found for expert, legitimate, reward, coercive, and the newly developed construct of connection power. Limited support was found for referent and information power. Furthermore, the association between information power, connection power, and informal power with innovative culture (operationally defined as adhocracy culture) was examined. For exploratory purposes, one item measuring horizontal structure was included. The findings suggested that informal sources of power, particularly when combined with a horizontal organizational structure, complemented and reinforced an innovative culture. Implications and future research directions were discussed.     

Indicators of leadership development in undergraduate military education

Despite the reputation of service academies and military colleges for producing leaders of character who serve as commissioned officers in America's armed forces, little is known about the actual effects these institutions have on the leadership development of their students. A two‐step process, this cross‐sectional study sought to investigate leadership development through the lens of the leadership identity development model as measured by the aptitude for commission grade. From a review of the military leadership curriculum at American service academies and military colleges, the initial phase of research established that leadership development occurred. The second phase used quantitative methods and a cross‐sectional design to investigate the effects of peer ranking, cumulative grade point average, leadership grades, and varsity athletic participation on leadership development throughout four years of undergraduate education. Findings indicated that company ranking by peers was significant regardless of gender or ethnicity. Mixed significant findings resulted for grade point average, leadership grades, and varsity athletic participation when based on gender and self‐identified minority status.     

Virtual communication,transformational leadership,and implicit leadership

This research was designed to test the theoretical relationship among personality, implicit leadership, and transformational leadership in a setting devoid of face‐to‐face communication, which we entitled virtual communication. Specifically, the study was designed to link, by using the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP), traits from the 5‐factor model of personality (the Big 5) to followers' perception of the leadership style of a virtual leader on the basis of Bass and Avolio's MLQ‐5X (1994). A voluntary sample consisted of undergraduate and graduate students from two universities in the south Texas area (N = 306). Respondents to the virtual communication rated Leader 1's communication, which used previously identified transformational language (Salter, Carmody‐Bubb, Duncan, & Green, 2007), as significantly more transformational than Leader 2's communication, using words not associated with transformational leaders. Participants who scored high in the Big 5 personality traits of agreeableness, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and extraversion rated the leader as more transformational while those high in neuroticism rated the leader as less transformational.     

Non-coercive influence: Scale development and validation based on resource and relational paradigms

To overcome competition in an increasingly network dependent market, retailers are required to influence upstream channel partners while sustaining relationships. However, the contemporary supply chain literature has not sufficiently leveraged the resource and relational paradigms to examine influence. Grounded on resource dependency theory and commitment-trust theory paradigms, this study describes conceptualization and operationalization of a 12-item scale for measuring non-coercive influence on upstream channel partners in retail supply chain management (R-SCM) context. The study is based on responses from 547 retail professionals in India obtained over four successive surveys. Psychometric properties were assessed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The proposed scale demonstrates construct validity. Invariance-testing carried out over 4-levels of increasingly demanding equivalence confirmed cross-validation. Nomological validity of the scale was tested by evaluating association with suppliers’ intention to cooperate. The results indicate existence of three dimensions of non-coercive influence: collaborative intent, market intelligence dissemination, and operational support. Retailers can use the scale to assess their personnel's non-coercive influence behavior over suppliers.     

Business strategy for sustainable development: Impact of life cycle inventory and life cycle impact assessment steps in supply chain design and planning

Sustainability reporting has become a central instrument in displaying a company's strategy and engagement with a more sustainable society. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an important tool in this context as it is aimed to analyze the entire life cycle of the product/service, instead of focusing on one focal firm. However, the lack of standardized guidelines in its application raises questions regarding the usefulness and validity of results. This study contributes to the improvement of sustainability reporting through the identification of the uncertainty sources in life cycle methodologies that have the biggest impact in the definition of business and environmental strategies, exploring a supply chain‐oriented analysis. The focus is on life cycle inventory (LCI) and life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). A multiobjective optimization‐based methodology is applied to a supply chain case study in the pulp and paper industry. Environmental and economic objectives are considered. Results show that different LCIA methods and different normalization data sets result in significantly different business and environmental strategies. However, different system models and cultural perspectives at the LCI step and variations in the characterization factors tend to lead to the same decisions. Important insights are gained regarding the impact of nonstandardized analysis of the application of LCA in supply chain design and planning decisions and consequently on business strategy definition and sustainability reporting. Furthermore, the importance of operations research methods to improve LCA‐based studies and of bridging the gap between LCA and supply chain management bodies of knowledge is highlighted in this work.