实物期权理论在房地产价值评估中的应用

房地产开发时间长,价格变化快,传统的净现值法易低估房地产开发项目的价值,往往导致对项目的低评。本文通过引入实物期权理论,在论述其在房地产开发价值评估中应用的合理性基础上,结合房地产开发的实例讨论在不确定性条件下房地产推迟开发带来的投资机会价值,为房地产价值评估提供一种更贴近实际情况的方法。     

Valuation of a Repriceable Executive Stock Option

We introduce a path-dependent executive stock option. The exercise price might be reduced when both the firm’s stock price and a stock market index fall greatly. The repriceable executive stock option has a simple payoff that may be used for realistic executive rewards. We show the valuation formula, and compute the probability of the repriceable executive stock option expiring in-the-money. Both price and probability are important pieces of quantitative information when choosing an executive compensation package.     

并购中企业实物期权价值评估的研究

本文采用实物期权法,建立了企业并购中目标企业的价值评估模型,认为并购中目标企业的价值不仅包括企业自身的价值,还应包括由于并购的实物期权特征和协同效应产生的目标企业的附加价值。目标企业自身的价值由传统的折现现金流法计算并通过实物期权理论调整;并购附加价值由实物期权法,改进的折现现金流法和专家评分法进行计算和分配。     

Locked Up by a Lockup: Valuing Liquidity as a Real Option

Hedge funds often impose lockups and notice periods to limit the ability of investors to withdraw capital. We model the investor's decision to withdraw capital as a real option and treat lockups and notice periods as exercise restrictions. Our methodology incorporates time-varying probabilities of hedge fund failure and optimal early exercise. We estimate a two-year lockup with a three-month notice period costs approximately 1% of the initial investment for an investor with constant relative risk aversion utility and risk aversion of three. The cost of illiquidity can easily exceed 10% if the hedge fund manager can arbitrarily suspend withdrawals.     

Option Valuation with Systematic Stochastic Volatility

We use an extension of the equilibrium framework of Rubinstein ( 1976 ) and Brennan ( 1979 ) to derive an option valuation formula when the stock return volatility is both stochastic and systematic. Our formula incorporates a stochastic volatility process as well as a stochastic interest rate process in the valuation of options. If the “mean,” volatility, and “covariance” processes for the stock return and the consumption growth are predictable, our option valuation formula can be written in “preference-free” form. Further, many popular option valuation formulae in the literature can be written as special cases of our general formula.     

关于房地产抵押贷款的评估

目前,房地产抵押贷款评估中存在着不少问题,笔者希望就此与同行们切磋。一、接受评估委托前需要注意的问题抵押贷款评估的前提应该是银行已有同意放贷的意向。有些评估委托方在没有得到银行表示同意贷款 之前,就直接找评估机构要求进行抵押物的评估。当评估完毕,银行却不同意贷款时,就出现了不来取评估报告或要求撤消评估业务约定书这样的情况。因此,评估机构有必要在接受评估委托前提醒委托方,     

Jump Diffusion Option Valuation in Discrete Time

We develop a simple, discrete time model to value options when the underlying process follows a jump diffusion process. Multivariate jumps are superimposed on the binomial model of Cox, Ross, and Rubinstein (1979) to obtain a model with a limiting jump diffusion process. This model incorporates the early exercise feature of American options as well as arbitrary jump distributions. It yields an efficient computational procedure that can be implemented in practice. As an application of the model, we illustrate some characteristics of the early exercise boundary of American options with certain types of jump distributions.     

Dividend Forecast Biases in Index Option Valuation

Since the early days of option pricing theory,the assumption that the dividends on the underlying stock or index over the life of the contract are known has not been challenged. We examine the sensitivity of index option prices to the assumption of dividend uncertainty. We consider a number of issues related to the forecasting of dividends and build a dividend forecasting model that passes several rigorous tests for unbiasedness. We then generate option prices using contemporary market levels and interest rates. We find that prices generated with the actual dividends are unbiased with respect to those generated using the forecasted dividends. The magnitudes of the forecast errors, however, are sufficiently large to suggest a concern, but the percentage errors are consistently small, typically amounting to less than two percent of the option price. We conclude that the convenient assumption that the stream of future dividendsis known is probably innocuous. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Evaluating Real Estate Valuation Systems

A framework for comparing real estate valuation systems (including automated valuation models (AVMs) and current appraisal methods) is proposed. The density estimation and profit simulation (DEPS) method measures quality of a valuation system by simulating benefits to the mortgage lender who uses this method in mortgage underwriting to limit mortgage portfolio losses due to default. Related simple measures relevant to the selection of a valuation system are also discussed: skewness of the distribution of errors, correlation of valuation errors with current selling price errors, correlation of errors of the valuation system with errors of valuation systems used by competing mortgage lenders, and other measures.     

Employee Stock Options, Equity Valuation, and the Valuation of Option Grants Using a Warrant-Pricing Model

We investigate the use of a warrant‐pricing approach to incorporate employee stock options (ESOs) into equity valuation and to account for the dilutive effect of ESOs in the valuation of option grants for financial reporting purposes. Our valuation approach accounts for the jointly determined nature of ESO and shareholder values. The empirical results show that our stock price estimate exhibits lower prediction errors and higher explanatory powers for actual share price than does the traditional stock price estimate. We use our valuation approach to assess the implications of dilution on the fair‐value estimates of ESO grants. We find that the fair value is overstated by 6% if we ignore the dilutive feature of ESOs. Furthermore, this bias is larger for firms that are heavy users of ESOs, small, and R&D intensive, and for firms that have a broad‐based ESO compensation plan.     

Fair Valuation of a Guaranteed Life Insurance Participating Contract Embedding a Surrender Option

In this article we deal with the problem of pricing a guaranteed life insurance participating policy, sold in the Italian market, which embeds a surrender option. This feature is an American‐style put option that enables the policyholder to sell back the contract to the insurer at the cash surrender value. Employing a recursive binomial formula patterned after the Cox, Ross, and Rubinstein (1979) discrete option pricing model we compute, first of all, the total price of the contract, which also includes a compensation for the participation feature (“participation option,” henceforth). Then this price is split into the value of three components: the basic contract, the participation option, and the surrender option. The numerical implementation of the model allows us to catch some comparative statics properties and to tackle the problem of suitably fixing the contractual parameters in order to obtain the premium computed by insurance companies according to standard actuarial practice.     

Euro Membership as a Real Option Trigger: An Empirical Study of EU15 Manufacturing Firms

This article summarizes the authors' study of manufacturing firms in the 15 countries that made up the EU prior to its 2004 expansion. The study's main finding is that the introduction of the Euro has made companies based in one of the 12 countries that opted to adopt the Euro more inclined than firms based in one of the three non‐adopters (the U.K., Sweden, and Denmark) to exercise various forms of real options such as establishing alliances or partnerships, entering new markets, switching suppliers, or otherwise expanding within the Euro‐area. The study also shows that smaller, more profitable but financially constrained companies are particularly likely to exercise such real options triggered by the introduction of the Euro.     

New Perspectives on Real Estate Valuation

The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics -     

Valuation in US Commercial Real Estate

We consider a log‐linearized version of a discounted rents model to price commercial real estate as an alternative to traditional hedonic models. First, we verify a key implication of the model, namely, that cap rates forecast commercial real estate returns. We do this using two different methodologies: time series regressions of 21 US metropolitan areas and mixed data sampling (MIDAS) regressions with aggregate REIT returns. Both approaches confirm that the cap rate is related to fluctuations in future returns. We also investigate the provenance of the predictability. Based on the model, we decompose fluctuations in the cap rate into three parts: (i) local state variables (demographic and local economic variables); (ii) growth in rents; and (iii) an orthogonal part. About 30% of the fluctuation in the cap rate is explained by the local state variables and the growth in rents. We use the cap rate decomposition into our predictive regression and find a positive relation between fluctuations in economic conditions and future returns. However, a larger and significant part of the cap rate predictability is due to the orthogonal part, which is unrelated to fundamentals. This implies that economic conditions, which are also used in hedonic pricing of real estate, cannot fully account for future movements in returns. We conclude that commercial real estate prices are better modelled as financial assets and that the discounted rent model might be more suitable than traditional hedonic models, at least at an aggregate level.     

Option Valuation with Information Costs: Theory and Tests

In this paper, the valuation of stock and index options is analyzed in the context of Merton's model of capital market equilibrium with incomplete information. It is possible to derive a partial differential equation for options in such a context. The derivation gives more understanding of the way an option's future payoff is discounted to the present. In order to estimate some of its parameters, the model is calibrated to market prices. It is tested using market prices and the authors' valuation formula. It is found that model prices are not significantly different from market prices, especially when out-of-the-money and deep-in-the-money options are considered. The model gives an explanation to the “strike bias” and the “smile effect.” Simulations of models based respectively on stochastic volatilities and gamma processes, are in accordance with the findings in this paper concerning biases in the Black and Scholes model, especially for pricing deep-in-the-money and out-of-the-money options. Even if the estimation method has its drawbacks, the costs of gathering and processing information regarding the option and its underlying asset play a central role in explaining the biases observed in the Black and Scholes model and help also the understanding of the U-shaped curve known as the smile of volatilities.     

房地产抵押评估的评估方法问题

2008年,深圳房价大幅下跌,一些业主停止向银行偿还贷款,也就是＂断供＂。2008年7月中旬,深圳英郡年华、泰华阳光海、半岛城邦、澳城等楼盘的业主已经停止向银行偿还贷款。如果深圳的房价持续下跌,＂断供＂现象很有可能在深圳蔓延。众所周知,这将使银行出现坏账!     

房地产抵押评估应关注的几个问题

随着金融体制改革的深化,各商业银行为降低自身的信贷风险,大都在推行以房地产抵押为主的抵押贷款.如何在房地产抵押中合理地对房地产价值进行评估,为抵押双方提供一个可靠的价值依据,从而保证金融部门的资金安全,保障抵押人应得的经济利益,已成为价值评估行业的一个重要课题.本文拟就房地产抵押的性质、抵押的客体范围、抵押标的权属以及评估中应关注的其他问题谈一些看法.     

不动产评估中重置成本的分析

重置成本法是我国最常用的财产价值评估方法,也是评估不动产中使用较多的方法。如何合理地确定不动产的重置成本,不同的评估人员有着不太一致的说法。本文通过对有关重置成本的规范标准的对比,进行了重置成本的各种确定方法的综合分析,并提出了建议。