Collectivistic and Individualistic Values: Their Effects on Group Dynamics and Productivity in China

Collectivistic and individualistic values are theorized to have far reaching effects on teamwork and organizations. This study proposes that cooperative and competitive goal interdependence mediates the relationship between these values and group interaction and outcomes. Working in State Owned Enterprises in three regions of China, 689 employees in 194 teams indicated their group's values, goal interdependence, constructive controversy, and productivity. Their managers also reported on the extent these teams were productive. Structural equation analysis suggested that collectivistic values may reinforce cooperative goals and an open-minded discussion of views which in turn results in strong relationships and team productivity, as experienced from both the team's and manager's perspectives. Individualistic values, especially the horizontal version, can have contrasting effects through fostering competitive goals and closed-minded discussion. These results, coupled with previous research, suggest that collectivist values, cooperative goals, and constructive controversy provide an important foundation for productive teamwork.     

The Impact of Ethical Leadership, the Internal Audit Function, and Moral Intensity on a Financial Reporting Decision

Two elements of corporate governance??the strength of ethical executive leadership and the internal audit function (IAF hereafter)??provide guidance to accounting managers making decisions involving uncertainty. We examine the joint effect of these two factors, manipulated at two levels (strong, weak), in an experiment in which accounting professionals decide whether to book a questionable journal entry (i.e., a journal entry for which a reasonable business case can be made but there is no supporting documentation). We find that ethical leadership and the IAF interact to determine the likelihood that accountants book the entry. Specifically, accountants are less likely to book a questionable journal entry when there is a weak ethical leader and a strong IAF compared to all other conditions. In addition, we find that accountants question the appropriateness and ethicalness of the request to book an undocumented journal entry more in the weak ethical leader and strong IAF condition than in the other conditions. These results suggest that the IAF has a different impact on financial reporting decisions depending on the ethicalness of executive leadership and that a strong IAF may cause accountants to question the appropriateness and ethicalness of an undocumented journal entry when combined with weak ethical leadership. We also find that the interactive effect of ethical leadership and the IAF on an accountant??s decision is fully mediated by his/her perception of the moral intensity of the issue. Thus, accountants, who perceive greater moral intensity associated with booking the entry, are less willing to do so.     

Working with customers: Cooperation and competition in relational marketing

The relationship and interaction between salespeople and their customers may be usefiilly examined in terms of how they believe their goals and interests are related. Twenty‐five sales persons and 40 travel agents and managers in charge of corporate travel were interviewed on specific interactions. Results support previous theorizing that productive conflict management and resulting trust and personal bonds contribute to successful marketing relationships and suggest that these dynamics occur when sales representatives and clients have developed strongly cooperative goals, but not when they have competitive or independent goals. Results were interpreted that the constructive discussion of opposing views complements cooperative goals as important contributors for developing successful relational marketing.     

Luca Pacioli on Business Profits

This paper investigates whether gender affects ethically sensitive decisions of a personal or business nature. Data from 51 practicing accountants from both public accounting and private industry suggest that while differences exist between female and male accountants in responses to specific situations, overall responses are quite similar. Statistically significant differences were found for only five of the sixteen ethically sensitive situations. Further, when personal and business situations of a similar nature were paired together, two of the eight differences between personal and business responses were significantly different between females and males. Taken as a whole, the results refute the suggestion that the ethical decision making of organizations may be enhanced as more women enter the business field.     

Individual Decision-Making in Organizations: Contribution of Uncertainty and Controversy in China

Uncertainty has been thought to challenge the cognitive capabilities of managers and thereby undermine their decision-making abilities. However, managers who experience uncertainty in that they are unsure of the adequacy of their own position may open-mindedly consult with their colleagues in the organization before they make the decision. A sample of 122 Chinese mainland managers described and rated a critical incident when they tried to make a decision. Regression analyses indicated that to the extent that managers initially felt uncertain about the solution they engaged in constructive controversy, i.e. the open-minded discussion for mutual benefit, which, in turn, led to effective decision-making. Cooperative goals further moderated the association of uncertainty with cooperative goals such that the positive association was stronger with less cooperative goals. These results underline the positive role of uncertainty in solving difficult problems, especially under competitive goals.     

The role of personal relationships in inter-firm alliances: Benefits, dysfunctions, and some suggestions

Strategic alliances have become an important means for developing and improving a firm's level of competitiveness. Although attractive, alliances are risky and difficult to manage. One crucial mechanism in managing and reducing alliance risk is reliance on personal relationships between managers in partnering firms. Personal ties are beneficial in that they can form the basis for developing trust between partners, and aid joint decision-making and information sharing, thereby reducing some of the risks inherent in alliances. Despite their usefulness, however, personal relationships may have drawbacks. For example, strong interpersonal ties in alliances can sometimes prevent dissolution of faltering arrangements, as feelings may prevent the making of difficult, yet prudent, termination decisions. In order to combat this possibility, firms can reduce the downside of personal relationships by carefully managing the role of performance managers across the life of the relationship.     

Accounting in Hungary: Do we speak the same language?

Accounting in Hungary has undergone significant reforms in recent years. Modeled after European Accounting rules and International Accounting standards, the Hungarian Rules of Law in Force have brought accounting practices in line with west European standards. This article compares the Hungarian Law of accounting to US accounting standards. Those differences that may affect the decisions of an executive working within the international arena are highlighted. Although minor differences exist, mainly in disclosure requirements, US investors, creditors, and managers may be assured comparable information is available for analyses. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A Circle of Influence: Are All the Stakeholders Included?

Traditionally, certified public accountants (CPAs) have served a unique role in the world of commerce and the profession of accounting. They perform an attest function and thereby serve as the chief providers of relevant, high quality accounting information to the decision making public. CPAs are licensed practitioners, who as expert independent accountants express opinions about an entity'sfinancial statements. Their license provides them with the exclusive right to perform this attest function. This monoploy relies on the concept of independence that is the normative standard of accountancy. It is this perceived independence of auditors which provides credibility, reliability and trust in the financial accounting information upon which stakeholders depend to make informed decisions. Now, however, we see the environment in which CPAs operate undergoing rapid change. Both the globalization of business operations and technological advances have radically changed how and where accountants work and the speed at which things happen. The very nature of accounting information services is evolving; moving from a concentration on audits to an increasing reliance on consulting and assurance services. New ethical issues have been raised by this confluence of changes in the accounting environment. Noteworthy is that the application of the principle of independence by CPAs has been called into question by no other than the SEC. Are those stakeholders who depend upon the independence of CPAs at risk? The influence of insiders has significantly increased as accounting firms perform multiple tasks for the same clients. This paper discusses the different groups who can potentially impair the independence of auditors and the steps that are being taken to enhance the "independence" of the auditors.     

Effects of warm-heartedness and reward distribution on negotiation

Research is needed to identify the conditions and dynamics by which foreign managers and local employees can negotiate their differences integratively. In an experiment with 120 participants in South China, employees with foreign managers who communicated warm-heartedness, compared to indifference, indicated that they had cooperative goals, a quality relationship, were confident in future collaboration, and concluded that their manager was an effective leader. Employees with foreign managers who structured mutual rather than independent or comparative rewards found their manager’s ideas reasonable and integrated them into their decisions. Results, especially if they can be replicated in field settings, suggest how foreign managers can negotiate effectively and develop their relationships with Chinese employees.     

An examination of communication behaviors as mediators in individual‐level interorganizational exchanges

This research attempts to address some of the gaps in our understanding of individual‐level interorganizational exchanges. To this end, a conceptual framework that integrates cooperative norms, communication behaviors, and perceived problem‐solving efficacy is developed. Qualitative and quantitative methodologies were employed to explore relevance and significance of proposed constructs and relationships. Findings support the viability of constructs and proposed relationships. Specifically, communication behaviors were found to mediate the relationship between cooperative norms and problem‐solving confidence to resolve conflict. These results hold implications for future research and management practice. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

法务会计与经济发展的关系实证研究——以辽宁为例

通过对辽宁五个城市的法务会计问卷调查,分析了法务会计与经济发展的关系,并探讨了法务会计人才培养途径,得出的结论是:在辽宁"五点一线"经济发展战略中,应建立和发展法务会计,培养既有法律知识,又有会计知识的复合性法务会计人员,是满足司法会计鉴定和促进社会经济发展的需要的重大举措。这一举措,不仅对改良并规范企业财务运营机制,促进经营决策更加科学、有效,还可以点带面,在企业间形成连锁反应;而且还可以通过司法机关和相关中介服务机构更加专业、精准的行动,有效查处经济犯罪,有力保障经济秩序,营造良好的经济环境,带动辽宁老工业基地区域经济的腾飞。     

Attitudes of students and accounting practitioners concerning the ethical acceptability of earnings management

There are many ways that accountants and managers can influence the reported accounting results of their organizational units. When such influence is directed at changing the amount of reported earnings, it is known as earnings management. The purpose of this paper is to present the results of surveys of undergraduate students, MBA students, and practicing accountants concerning their attitudes on the ethical acceptability of earnings management. Analysis of the survey results reveals how the attitudes of the three groups differ and what variables are associated with these differences. Based on the analysis, the authors suggest changes in accounting education curriculum and ethics awareness programs in business which might increase students' and practitioners' sensitivity to the ethical ramifications of earnings management.Marilyn Fischer, is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the University of Dayton in Dayton, Ohio. She specializes in workplace ethics, particularly in the nonprofit sector, and has published articles in business ethics, and social and political philosophy.Kenneth Rosenzweig, is Associate Professor of Accounting at the University of Dayton in Dayton, Ohio. He specializes in teaching management accounting, and has published articles in a wide variety of accounting areas.     

Ethics-Related Responses to Specific Situation Vignettes: Evidence of Gender-Based Differences and Occupational Socialization

This research presents findings from a study of gender-based differences in an ethical decision situation. The study focuses on gender as it relates to situational factors and accounting experience. The primary element of interest is how the gender of the actor (the person described in each vignette) influences the evaluation/assessment of the ethical/unethical decisions. While previous research has provided evidence of ethical differences relating to the gender of the responding subjects, limited evidence has been presented relating to situational issues that may influence assessments of ethical decisions.This research uses four accounting environment vignettes to survey the responses of accountants and accounting students to the ethical/unethical nature of the actions that are taken. In addition, how likely the accountants believe they are to take the same actions is also surveyed. The subjects are a representative sample of practicing accountants in the U.S. and senior/graduate accounting majors at a state university in the southwestern United States.The survey finds that occupational socialization is occurring up to a point. When specific rules are violated or tested, males and females behave similarly, thus illustrating that they have learned from their environment – occupational socialization. Alternatively, when gray areas are involved, they either tend to behave differently or assess the behavior of others differently, pointing to evidence of gender socialization.     

Schmoozers,not snoozers: Busting the Kevin and Angela stereotypes in public accounting

In contrast to the well-known stereotype of the boring, unsociable accountant, today’s public accounting professionals argue that they are boundary spanners. Working at the intersection of the firm/client interface, these professionals contend that sociability is a requisite skill for routinely navigating the many interactions they have with multiple personnel at client organizations. This research aims to address this disconnect and to confront whether the public perception is warranted. Using the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue), we assess the sociability of 176 public accounting professionals and discover that, contrary to the stereotype, male public accountants are more sociable than males in the general population. Our analysis also demonstrates that female public accountants are no more or less sociable than females in the general population. Additional analysis shows that while male public accountants are more sociable than female public accountants, this effect is attributable to differences at lower levels of the profession and that male-female differences disappear when comparing male managers and partners to female managers and partners. Given the importance of sociability in public accounting, this research offers recruiting strategies that will help to dispel the myth of the unsociable accountant and provides training tips for enhancing sociability within the ranks.     

The differential perception of accountants to Maccoby's head/heart traits

We in the accounting profession have long shown an interest in presenting an ethical image. But are accountants more ethical than others in the business world? In order to answer that question, a survey was mailed to 250 lower-level accounting professionals to determine their perceptions of the importance of nineteen head and heart trait items first identified by Maccoby. The results, based on 134 replies, indicate that accountants have a higher perception of the importance of the heart traits that have been associated with ethical inclinations than both managers and business students surveyed previously. However, in that head trait items still dominate in terms of importance, if accountants are more ethical, it is not to an overwhelming degree.     

Spotlight on pensions

Pensions represent a significant financial burden for many companies and a critical source of retirement income for employees. Accordingly, it is important that corporate financial statements transparently present information about the financial health and consequences of pension plans. Numerous criticisms have been levied at financial reporting for pensions, leading to a recent project to revise pension accounting. This article discusses implications of changes to pensions accounting for financial statement users and corporate managers. In general, research suggests that likely changes in pension accounting could increase financial statement users' perceptions of companies' pension burden and risk. In turn, these perceptions could affect corporate managers' decisions with respect to pension commitments and investments.     

The path of lease resistance: How changes to lease accounting treatment may impact your business

In this installment of Accounting Matters, we examine potential consequences of the Financial Accounting Standards Board's Proposed Accounting Standards Updates for Leases. In the context of a previous accounting change (FIN 48), we investigate how these changes will affect firms’ accounting choices, investment decisions, debt covenant requirements, and analysis of other key financial data. Changes in accounting standards may have significant indirect economic effect on companies as they can trigger debt covenant violations, restrict access to capital, and distort key financial information used by investors and lenders. New accounting standards may also directly affect the calculation of employee bonuses and incentives that utilize EBITDA or operating income as benchmarks. We include recommendations for managers and identify specific debt covenant components that may limit the negative consequences of the proposed change to lease accounting.     

刍议我国会计诚信问题

财政部会计信息质量检查结果表明,我国会计诚信问题仍然存在。其原因是会计艺术属性的局限性;委托代理的信息不对称;公司治理结构的缺陷;企业内外部监督不完善。解决我国会计诚信问题,应采取开展会计人员的诚信宣传教育,加强注册会计师行业监督,建立会计人员诚信查询系统等对策。     

A Cross-Country Comparison of the Codes of Professional Conduct of Certified/Chartered Accountants

This research examines the extent to which similarities and differences exist in the codes of professional conduct of certified (chartered) accountants across the following countries: the United States, Taiwan, South Korea, Malaysia, Ontario (Canada), Australia, India, and Hong Kong. These eight countries exemplify some of the diversity in economic, political, legal, and cultural environments in which public accountants practice. The professional codes of ethics establish the ethical boundary parameters within which professional accountants must operate and they are a function of these environments.The results of the study reveal that commonalities exist on some ethical rules indicating that some rules are indeed "culture free". Cross-country variations, however, exist as to the specificity and elaborateness of the rules. Such variations can be attributed to cultural and legal differences, as well as the length of time each professional organization has been in existence. An understanding of the similarities and differences in the codes is important to individuals who may work in these countries. Professional accountants involved in international business must understand the implications of the decisions they make in light of the ethical codes and moral values of their counterparts in foreign countries. After a discussion of the similarities and differences in the codes, the implications of these comparisons for accounting practice are discussed.     

New product decision making: How chance and size of loss influence what marketing managers see and do

This article empirically examines, in a new‐product decision context, the relationships among risk propensity, perceived risk, and risky choice decisions, when risk is operationalized as the chance of loss and the size of loss. The results indicate that perceptions of chance of loss directly influence choice among alternatives possessing different chances of loss and gain, whereas risk propensity directly influences choice among alternatives that differ in their size of loss and gain. The findings extend previous research by identifying dimension‐specific effects (a) between who the decision maker is and the size of an investment's potential loss, and (b) between what the decision maker sees and the chance that an investment will experience a loss. These results not only contribute to theory, but also provide marketing managers with guidance for their risky choice decisions. The composition of a new product's risk has implications for the decisions marketing managers make, for the placement of managers in risk‐sensitive positions, and for the presentation of information to individuals with oversight responsibility for the firm's product strategy decisions. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.