Finnish trade in the early seventeenth century

Abstract

Mercantilist principles were observed more strictly in Sweden-Finland than in many other European countries. Towns were classified according to their right to carryon foreign trade; full ‘staple rights’, viz. the right to pursue both active and passive foreign trade, were held by no more than four Finnish towns, situated on the Gulf of Finland, viz. Turku (Åbo), Viipuri (Viborg), Helsinki (Hclsingfors) and Porvoo (BorgÅ), the last of which lost this right in 1639. The commercial policy which was pursued during the Period of Ascendancy (1611–1718) exerted an important influence upon the development of the urban social structure in Finland and it was the regulations governing foreign trade which were the decisive factor in limiting the growth of a merchant ‘aristocracy’ to the staple towns. These matters are illustrated in the introductory part of Dr. Möller's dissertation.     

Transport logistic services in Russia: Integration in the world market

This paper considers problems of increased foreign trade networks requiring faster growth of multimodal shipping and exact coordination of all points in the chain of freight delivery. Special attention is paid to rail and sea shipping integration in major directions of freight flows.     

Earldoms and baronies as economic enterprises in seventeenth century Finland

Abstract

In his comprehensive monograph of nearly eight hundred pages, the first volume of which was published as an academic dissertation six years ago, Professor Jokipii has undertaken to give an account of the brief history of Finnish earldoms and baronies. With two exceptions these twenty-nine large-scale fiefs lasted in all only a quarter of a century (the third quarter of the seventeenth century). Nevertheless, they made their mark on the later development of Finland.     

Denmark's relations with Lübeck and Hamburg in the seventeenth century

Abstract

Denmark's political relationship with the Hanseatic towns in the sixteenth century was one of increasing disengagement and self-assertion. During the reign of Frederick II, for instance, there were operations against Hamburg in 1562 and 1574, with the seizure of Hamburg ships in Danish-Norwegian waters; similarly, Hamburg's interests in Iceland were interfered with and her purchases of com from Holstein fanners obstructed. These tendencies became still more marked under Frederick's successor, Christian IV. Princely dislike of the republican cities and national business interests combined in the spirit of early mercantilism. Lubeck's privileges were not confirmed, In 1602 Copenhagen, Malmo and Helsinger were given the right to trade with Iceland, a right which had previously been exercised by Hamburg, Bremen and Lubeck. Together with the founding of Gliickstad, the efforts to command the estuaries of the Elbe and Weser, and the King's expansionist policy in north Gennany, this gave the cities sufficient grounds for anxiety.     

Subsistence and sales: the peasant economy of Württemberg in the early seventeenth century

This article examines the engagement of peasant cultivators with the grain market in Germany in the seventeenth century. It demonstrates a differentiated propensity to sell in regard to different grains; a preference among cultivators for retaining subsistence foodstuffs; the importance of payment in kind in the labour market; and the lack of a clear-cut social structural divide between grain sellers and buyers among those who cultivate arable land. It is thus argued that the analytical concept of 'the peasant' retains its use in understanding this society, but that attitudes displayed by the peasantry to 'the market' must be clearly set in the context of the specific product markets and practices to retain any analytical value.     

United states and french competition in the world market

Conclusion The purpose of the study has been to examine whether the direction of international trade is governed by the doctrine of comparative cost. It is concluded that this doctrine does explain a significant percentage of the flow of trade between the two countries studied. There are additional factors, however, as listed in the introduction which also influence trade between nations.The inability to include non-labor costs such as material costs and selling costs in explaining the variations in the exports of France and the U.S., results from the paucity of data available in these areas in the national statistics of France. However, since the establishment of the O.E.C.D., additional data concerning industries have been made available in growing volume. Moreover, the O.E.C.D. has endeavored to harmonize the ways in which data from the European countries and the U.S. are collected. As comparable data become available, further research will be necessary to measure the importance of non-labor costs to total costs and their influence on export performance.A large section of the article has been adapted from the author's 1969 doctoral dissertation at the New School for Social Research.     

Government bond market: Potential for establishing a system of primary dealers in Russia based on relevant world experience

The paper considers a potential improvement in the stability of the Russian government bond market by establishing a system of primary dealers. The existing world models of primary dealership are identified and their relations with national market peculiarities are determined based on the analysis of statistics and regulatory documents of 22 countries. The revealed regularities allow the authors to propose a private dealership model adapted to the specifics of the domestic economy.     

迈向21世纪的世界经济特区

作为实行与国内其他地区迥然相异经济体制和经济政策的经济特区在世界经济发展史上已经存在了400多年，成为一个超越生产力水平和社会政治制度差别的一个普遍的世界经济现象，从阁下产力发展水平来看，开辟经济特区的有美国、日本、英国、法国和德国等发达国家，美国在其港口开辟了10多个对外贸易区，使其成为世界上此类经济特区最多的国家，日本冲强自由贸易区（设在那霸港）、英国南安普敦自由港、法国马赛自由港都是这些国家开辟经济特区的重要例证，而德国的汉堡自由港就是更是举世闻名，新兴的工业化国家和地区韩国和我国台湾的出口加工区在其70和80年代出口异向工业化的过程中曾经发挥过十分重要的作用，随着出口加工区完成了它的历史愈来愈，我国台湾高科技经济特区-新竹科学工业园区又在90年代和21世纪产业升级换代、向高科技产业迈进的过程中发挥着火车头的作用，由于特殊的历史和地理的原因，新加坡和香港自19世纪以来就一直是自由港，香港在1997年7月1日主权回归中国之后依然保留着自由港的地位，自由港的自由贸易政策在新加坡和香港成为重楞际中心的过程中发挥着巨大的作用，广大的发展中国家巴拿马、巴西、墨西哥、哥伦比亚、印度尼西亚、印度等国都辟有经济特区，一些国家的经济特区还在本国经济中起着十分重要的作用，例如中美洲小国巴拿巴的科隆自由贸易区就是中美洲和西印度群岛的巨大的货物集散地，对本国经济的繁荣起着极大的促进作用，北美洲墨西哥的墨美边境出口加工区对墨西哥的工业化起到巨大的促进作用，还有一些发展中国家的经济特区虽然没有在全国但也在区域经济发展中起到积极的促进作用，例如巴西玛瑙斯自由贸易区在开发巴西亚玛逊河的内陆地区就曾发挥过重要作用，显然，上述国家和地区大都属于资本主义市场经济。     

Sugar market in Russia: Retrospective analysis and development trends

The article is devoted to analyzing the functioning of the sector under the conditions a decline in economic activities, the possibilities of the formation of service products on the market of transport services, problems of the cooperation of railways with seaports, and peculiarities of their operation in the range outbound directions of the network, as well as development prospects of the railway transport in the economic and geopolitical processes in the country and world.     

International market interdependence and learning-by-doing in a risky world

International Market Interdependence and Learning-by-Doing in a Risky World. — This paper explores the role of international financial markets for the dynamic evolution of comparative advantage in a small economy. In a world where learning-by-doing alters labor’s productivity over time, the current allocation of labor across industries determines the future productivity of labor in each industry and future comparative advantage. The presence of technological uncertainty that is imperfectly correlated across two industries affects the current labor allocation and, thus, future industry-specific labor productivity. The introduction of international financial markets to this stochastic environment influences current resource allocations, future labor productivity, and consequently, the future path of comparative advantage.     

Convergence and divergence of numeracy: the development of age heaping in Latin America from the seventeenth to the twentieth century1

This study makes the first systematic attempt to trace the long‐term development of Latin American numeracy, a phenomenon of great interest to economic historians in that it serves as an accurate gauge of human capital development. In order to approximate basic numeracy we use age‐heaping techniques. We find that Latin America was on a path of convergence with western Europe during the early eighteenth century. During the early nineteenth century, not only did numeracy development stagnate in some Latin American countries but differences among some of them actually increased. While numeracy rates in Argentina, Uruguay, and to a lesser extent Brazil, along with Europe, underwent a significant increase in the late nineteenth century, they declined in Mexico, Ecuador, and Colombia. By performing a regression analysis, we find that, even when we control for investment in education, mass immigration contributed to human capital formation.     

“走出去”几度空间——专访中国医药保健品有限公司总裁 张本智

对于中国企业来说，20年就意味着经历了中国改革开放的全过程，意味着从计划经济向市场经济的转变中做出了漂亮的转身，以适应国际化、市场化的要求。在这个过程中，走出国门，拥有更广泛的世界市场成为卓越企业的目标。当然，机遇和挑战永远是挛生兄弟，面对的不仅仅是光明的前景。     

Grain market in Russia: From crisis to revival

This paper discusses some issues and trends in the world and Russian grain markets; the possible prospects for the development of domestic grain production and the ways of improving the tools for its support and regulation are investigated.