Foreign trademarks in developing countries

Foreign trademarks are used in some cases to cover imported goods and generally products made in the host countries by foreign manufacturing subsidiaries and licensees. This industrial property right is a major source of market power for those subsidiaries making consumer goods. Domestic enterprises making similar goods must either accept a reduced share of the market or must enter into trademark license agreements. But even in those cases, although licensees of foreign-owned trademarks receive a current profit out of the licence, they cannot enjoy the result of the goodwill development.Although the advertising expenditures are borne by the consumers of the developing countries, the accrual in goodwill is for the benefit of non-resident owners of this intangible asset. These private benefits — mostly appropriated by the foreign trademark owner — can be considered as net social costs to the recipient country.     

The need to establish a policy restricting the use of foreign trademarks in developing countries: The case of Mexico

The paper shows some of the negative effects of the use of foreign trademarks in the developing countries, taking into account the experience in Mexico. It also refers to the enactment of the new Law on Inventions and Trademarks as a response to the problems arising from that use. It contains statistical data concerning the licensing agreements registered in the Mexican Registry for the Transfer of Technology, which demonstrate the importance of the use of foreign trademarks, its cost and the type of restrictive business clauses that those agreements include.     

Openness and economic growth in developing countries

Openness and Economic Growth in Developing Countries. — Openness appears to have a strong impact on economic growth especially in DCs which typically exhibit a high share of physical capital in factor income and a low share of labor. In the neoclassical growth model with partial capital mobility, physical capital’s share in factor income determines the difference in the predicted convergence rates for open and closed economies. With a 60 percent share as in many DCs, the convergence rates should differ by a factor of 2.5. The regression results for a sample of open and closed DCs roughly confirm this hypothesis.     

Brewing projects in developing countries: Technology, costs and employment

Recently established industries in developing countries are often criticized for high costs and low employment-generation, and a coincidence is sometimes supposed, given low wage rates, between minimization of costs and substantial direct employment creation. Analysis of alternative technologies reveals this supposition to be largely unfounded, as far as lager brewing is concerned, over a wide range of developing country circumstances; but a set of low-cost, labour-intensive techniques is suggested as approximately meeting requirements both for low costs and for equitable distribution of employment and income opportunities.     

The choice of technology,economic efficiency and employment in developing countries

This paper comprises a bald presentation of some results of an enquiry into the choice of technology in the sugar and footwear indutries in Ethiopia and Ghana, and a bold examination of some implications of these results. The baldness can be justified by the need for brevity and the fact that more complete results, more fully described, will shortly be available; the boldness by the desire to focus attention on a number of issues which can stand airing in provocative form.The paper is organized in three parts. The first provides a brief theoretical introduction (to help fix ideas); the second describes the research and presents the results; and the third considers some equations raised by the findings.     

Drug costs in developing countries and policies to reduce them

Developed countries spend on a per capita basis about 100 times as much on health and 20 times as much on drugs as developing countries do. However, drugs constitute the ‘cutting edge’ of health service activities in the developing countries. This article analyses the estimated pharmaceutical and overall health expenditures for 1981 and gives a projection of those for the year 2000. Five policy options (1. The rational choice of drugs. 2. A public distribution system. 3. The use of bulk import orders. 4. The use of generic names. 5. The domestic production of drugs) that might reduce the current and projected levels of expenditure on drugs by developing countries, without curtailing other services, are examined. Potential savings both in domestic currency and foreign exchange that could be effected by implementing each of the five policy measures have been computed in order to indicate their critical contribution.     

Commodity price instability and economic goal attainment in developing countries

This paper reviews the theoretical and empirical micro and macro foundations for the frequent claims that instabilities in international commodity markets have deleterious effects on goal attainment in primary-commodity exporting developing countries. This review leads to the conclusion that the available evidence does not support these claims. The paper concludes with speculation on why such claims are so strong despite the lack of supporting evidence: perhaps it is because of measurement problems and perhaps because of small but articulate groups with vested interests in overstating the problem.     

The costs and benefits of inward investment: The case of Plymouth

Inward investment has long been regarded in the UK as the major method of restructuring the economies of depressed regions. The value of such investment has long been contentious. Those in favour argue that inward investment provides a number of benefits including the provision of good employment opportunities, diversification of local economies, demand for local raw materials, components and services, improved R & D and productivity and support of local communities. Those against tend to argue that inward investment provides the wrong sort of jobs in the wrong sort of production units and question whether many of the above alleged benefits are realised. This article examines these issues through a detailed analysis of the impact of inward investment in one city, Plymouth. The evidence suggests that the benefits of inward investment have been considerable though there have been some disadvantageous aspects. In any event, it is argued that there are no credible policy alternatives. What must be done is to increase the benefits by, for example, stipulating the local content of production.     

The task ahead for the cities of the developing countries

Between 1975 and the year 2000 the cities of the developing countries will be expected to absorb 70% of the projected population increases — 1.3 billion people — most of them poor. By any measures this is a gargantuan task. This paper examines the causes for the unprecedented growth of urban areas, the magnitude of this growth, and where it is occuring. Although cities are absorbing large numbers of people, they are doing so in a manner that is both inefficient and inequitable. Few cities are prepared for the vast increases that are clearly foreseeable in the next two decades. Unless there are changes in national, regional, and urban policies, the growth of urban areas will not make its maximum possible contribution to social well-being.     

发展中国家的地区开放经济发展模式探讨——以"泉州模式"为例

本文以″泉州模式″作为个案进行深入剖析,实证地研究发展中国家的地区开放经济发展模式与经济成功发展的联系,并从理论上分析发展中国家经济发展成功模式的内在机理。     

Some theoretical and empirical issues relating to economic stabilization in developing countries

This paper surveys some issues relating to economic stabilization in developing countries. Section 2 examines the contributions of terms-of-trade deterioration and real exchange rate appreciation to payments imbalances in non-oil developing countries during the 1970s. Section 3 distinguishes between demand-side and supply-side policies, and discusses their respective roles in stabilization programmes. The effects of exchange-rate changes are considered within this framework. In Section 4, the effects of alternative stabilization policies on output, prices and the balance of payments are illustrated using simulations of a model that incorporates the major relationships relevant to a typical programme. Section 5 summarizes the conclusions.     

Crisis in regional economic cooperation (integration) among developing countries: A survey

The article analyses the meaning, theory and key policy instruments of economic integration among LDCs and reviews the experience of various regional cooperation efforts in the Third World.It starts from the basic premise that economic integration is not an end in itself nor are its outcomes value-free; rather its social legitimacy depends on the socio-economic and political interests which are served by regional cooperation. Power commanding local hegemonic groups as well as foreign economic and political actors (governments and the transnational enterprises) play a determining role in the orientation, content and performance of regional cooperation.The article also explores the implications for integration of certain structural economic characteristics of LDCs involving key production, technological, trade and distributional considerations. They are interpreted as calling for regional cooperation mechanisms which are non-wholistic in the sense that they are directed towards the fulfilment of specific objectives, activities and tasks which require (a) programmed yet not comprehensive harmonization policies, (b) a subordination of trade to a planned and significant expansion of economic activities in new fields, and (c) the pursuit of certain outcomes whose values are not adequately reflected by the market system and whose inducement requires more explicit government intervention.Finally the article argues that since regional cooperation is by its nature conflict-prone and subject to strong polarization forces, and since, furthermore, the above-raised considerations call for a significant role to be played by the member countries' governments, the viability of the process is subject to a continuous commitment and manifestation of political support.     

The benefits of special drawing rights for less developed countries

Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) have existed for almost 10 years. This paper examines the implications of the SDR facility for LDCs. First, it is shown that the distribution formula for SDRs may be inappropriate. Second, the paper documents the way in which LDCs have used their allocated SDRs. Third, an attempt is made to estimate approximately the value of the benefits derived by LDCs from the SDR scheme. It is shown that the scheme could have been modified to yield further benefits for LDCs.     

金融体系结构与经济增长:对东亚国家的启示

金融体系结构对经济增长的作用是一个具有理论和现实意义的问题，直接影响到国家的政策选择。本文从此问题入手，比较了市场导向型金融体系与银行导向型金融体系在促进经济增长方面的作用机制的不同，对广大东亚国家来说，应该根据自身情况大力发展银行体系。     

The international environment for adjustment in developing countries

The international disequilibrium of the 1970s imposed on developing countries a burden of adjustment out of all proportion to their degree of responsibility for the imbalances incurred. The application of traditional stabilization programmes resulted, in a number of cases, in severe disruption of development. There was, moreover, a perverse distribution of the burden of adjustment, the poorest countries suffering most. A number of changes in international policy and practice are required to avoid a repetition of this experience. In particular, special provision is needed for cases in which deficits are largely of external origin, involving more adequate IMF financing at low conditionality so as to permit a stretching out of the period of adjustment.     

Adjustment policies and economic growth in developing countries — Is devaluation contractionary?

Zusammenfassung Anpassungspolitik und wirtschaftliches Wachstum in Entwicklungsl?ndern: Wirken Abwertungen kontraktiv? — Der Auffassung, da? abwertungsbedingte Substitutionseffekte ausreichend stark sind, um eine Ausweitung der Produktion zu gew?hrleisten, wird vielfach entgegengetreten. Eine verwirrende Vielzahl theoretischer Modelle verweist auf kontraktive Auswirkungen einer realen Abwertung. Empirische Analysen von Wechselkurseffekten auf das gesamtwirtschaftliche Wachstum fehlen jedoch weitgehend. Die vorliegende gepoolte L?nderquerschnittsuntersuchung für den Zeitraum 1982—1987 soll dazu beitragen, diese Lücke zu schlie?en. Die Ergebnisse der Regressionssch?tzungen widersprechen dem weitverbreiteten Pessimismus über die Wachstumseffekte realer Abwertungen. Die Sch?tzungen für verschiedene L?ndergruppen zeigen allerdings, da? die Richtung, das Ausma? und die zeitliche Abfolge der Wirkungen von den charakteristischen Strukturmerkmalen der untersuchten L?nder abh?ngen. Insbesondere die Exportstruktur erweist sich als wichtig.

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Résumé Les politiques d’ajustement et la croissance économique dans les pays en voie de développement: Est-ce que la dévaluation empêche la croissance? — La série déconcertante des théories qui posent qu’une dévaluation empêche la croissance doute de plus en plus de l’opinion que les effets de substitution causés par une dévaluation sont suffisamment forts pour augmenter la production macroéconomique. Avec cette étude on a l’intention de diminuer le trou frappant concernant la recherche empirique sur des effets d’une dévaluation. Les résultats de cette analyse de regression faite à travers des pays pour la période de 1982 à 1987 s’opposent au pessimisme général en ce qui concerne la répercussion d’une dévaluation réelle sur la croissance économique des pays en voie de développement. Les estimations pour des groupes de pays spécifiques indiquent que la direction, le degré et la structure temporelle des effets de croissance dépendent des caractéristiques structurelles des économies, principalement des exportations prépondérantes.

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Resumen Politicas de ajuste y crecimiento de países en desarrollo: ?puede una devaluación ser contractiva? — El impresionante número de marcos teóricos que tratan la devaluación contractiva está cuestionando seriamente la noción de que los efectos substitutivos inducidos por la devaluación son suficientemente fuertes como para garantizar un impacto netamente expansivo sobre el producto. La intención de este trabajo es llenar el vacío que existe en el studio empirico de los efectos de una devaluación. Los resultados del análisis de regresión de una muestra de varios países para el periodo 1982—1987 refutan el pesimismo generalizado sobre el impacto de una devaluación del tipo de cambio real sobre el crecimiento. Sin embargo, las estimaciones para ciertos grupos de países indican que el signo, el nivel y la estructura temporal de los impactos sobre el crecimiento dependen de las características estructurales, ante todo de las exportaciones más importantes de las economías estudiadas.