Organizational mode choices of multinational banks abroad

We investigate the determinants of organizational modes adopted by multinational banks abroad using a unique database of 98 parent banks and their organizational modes in 169 countries from 2005 to 2015. Our findings reveal that multinational banks operate in various organizational modes abroad, including multiple modes in a single host country; however, subsidiaries are the dominant mode of operation, followed by branches and simultaneously operating branches and subsidiaries in the host country. Furthermore, the characteristics of multinational banks play a significant role in determining their organizational decisions in a host country. Our results indicate that less profitable banks are less likely to open representative offices and are more likely to have branches. In contrast, multinational banks with high asset growth are more likely to operate a representative office abroad and less likely to open a subsidiary. These findings suggest that parent bank profitability and asset growth are important considerations when determining the optimal organizational mode of foreign expansion. Furthermore, country characteristics (particularly openness to economic and capital flows, institutional framework, and geographical and cultural distance) between host and home countries also influence foreign bank operations in a given host country.     

Determinants of the capital adequacy ratio of foreign banks’ subsidiaries: The role of interbank market and regulation

This paper examines the factors influencing the capital adequacy ratio (CAR) of foreign banks. We test whether the CAR of subsidiaries and branches in developed and developing countries depends on the same factors. We use data from 310 subsidiaries and 265 branches to test the impact of the parent banks’ fundamentals on subsidiaries’ and branches’ capital ratios. We also study how the economic condition and regulatory environment in a bank's home country determine foreign banks’ CAR. Our results provide strong evidence that the CAR of subsidiaries and branches operating in developing and developed countries do not depend on the same set of explanatory factors. We also find that the regulatory framework of a parent bank's home country affects the capitalization of its foreign subsidiaries in the host countries. Finally, we show that specific variables of the parent bank have a stronger effect for foreign banks highly related to the interbank market.     

Factors influencing the profitability of domestic and foreign commercial banks in the European Union

Using bank level data this paper examines how bank's specific characteristics and the overall banking environment affect the profitability of commercial domestic and foreign banks operating in the 15 EU countries over the period 1995–2001. The results indicate that profitability of both domestic and foreign banks is affected not only by bank's specific characteristics but also by financial market structure and macroeconomic conditions. All the variables, with the exception of concentration in the case of domestic banks profits, are significant although their impact and relation with profits is not always the same for domestic and foreign banks.     

Effect of operating multiple affiliates on the performance of subsidiaries in the same host country

Little has been reported on the effect of affiliates on their foreign subsidiary performance. In the context of multinational banks (MNBs), we empirically investigate how the establishment of multiple affiliate forms affects the performance of their subsidiaries in the same host country. We also examine the factors influencing and effective entry mode choices. Based on the transaction cost theory, we hypothesize that MNBs can benefit foreign subsidiaries using entry modes based on cost minimization and value maximization. For the period 2005–2015, we test this hypothesis on a sample of 1026 subsidiaries established by 96 MNBs across 106 countries. The results show that the simultaneous operation of multiple affiliate forms positively influences their foreign subsidiary’s performance. The transaction costs determine MNBs’ entry choices. MNBs can enhance their subsidiary’s performance using entry modes considering institutional and cultural contexts and achieving cost and value targets in the host country. This study has policy implications in that it calls for collaboration between host and home countries to develop effective supervision and resolution regimes for MNBs operating multiple affiliate forms in host countries.     

Estimating the technical and scale efficiency of Greek commercial banks: The impact of credit risk, off-balance sheet activities, and international operations

This paper uses data envelopment analysis (DEA) to investigate the efficiency of the Greek commercial banking industry over the period 2000–2004. Our results indicate that the inclusion of loan loss provisions as an input increases the efficiency scores, but off-balance sheet items do not have a significant impact. The differences between the efficiency scores obtained through the profit-oriented and the intermediation approaches are in general small. Banks that have expanded their operations abroad appear to be more technical efficient than those operating only at a national level. Higher capitalization, loan activity, and market power increase the efficiency of banks. The number of branches has a positive and significant impact on efficiency, but the number of ATMs does not. The results are mixed with respect to variables indicating whether the banks are operating abroad through subsidiaries or branches.     

Trends in Organizational Form and their Relationship to Performance: The Case of Foreign Securities Subsidiaries of U.S. Banking Organizations

Debate about the effects of permitting U.S. commercial banks to expand their range of activities has intensified in recent years. Some observers worry that banks with access to a federal safety net have strong incentives to use new opportunities to take greater risks and increase their likelihood of failure at possible cost to the FDIC and taxpayers. Others fear that the safety net might give banks a competitive advantage relative to nonbank rivals. A key element of this debate is whether a holding company structure does a significantly better job of mitigating against these potential problems than a bank subsidiary alternative and should be made mandatory for banking organizations that want to engage in nontraditional activities. Unfortunately, hard, current empirical evidence on the benefits and costs of alternative structures generally is lacking. The purpose of this paper is to provide this sort of evidence. In the study, annual financial data for the 1987–1997 period for an unbalanced panel of foreign securities subsidiaries of U.S. banking organizations are used to investigate two questions: What factors influence how bank holding companies organize securities activities when they have a choice? And are the observed differences in organizational form related to significant differences in key measures of subsidiary performance? This sort of study is possible because U.S. banking organizations can and do engage in securities activities through subsidiaries of the bank as well as holding company affiliates. These subsidiaries also file financial reports with bank regulators. A probit model is used to empirically identify important factors influencing structural choice. Univariate and multivariate statistical techniques are used to determine whether or not differences in subsidiary structure are related to differences in subsidiary risk, funding costs, and efficiency. Simultaneity is investigated to a limited extent. In brief, the empirical results do not support the position of the holding company proponents. Safety net subsidy incentives don’t appear to be a primary determinant of structural choice. The evidence does not indicate that bank-owned securities subsidiaries tend to be more risky than holding company securities subsidiaries. Bank securities subsidiaries also do not appear to enjoy any funding advantage relative to holding company subsidiaries. These two results are particularly noteworthy because section 23A and 23B restrictions on intracompany funding currently do not apply to transactions between banks and their direct and indirect bank subsidiaries. Finally, some evidence indicates that bank subsidiaries tend to be more efficient.     

Characteristics determining the efficiency of foreign banks in Australia

The factors determining foreign bank efficiency are investigated using a three stage research method. It is found that host market incumbency reduces efficiency of foreign banks in Australia, resulting in over use of inputs. Factors underlying the limited global advantage hypothesis of Berger et al. [Berger, Allen N., DeYoung, Robert, Genay, Hesna, Udell, Gregory F., 2000. Globalisation of financial institutions: Evidence from cross-border banking performance. Brookings-Wharton Papers on Financial Service 3, 23–120] are identified, in that nationality specific factors represented by dummy variables are not significant once other relevant effects are controlled for. Parent profitability is not found to result in increased host nation efficiency, while parent credit rating effects are mixed. Some evidence is presented that banks from more financially sophisticated nations are more efficient. The implications of these results are explored from the perspectives of bank management and bank regulators.     

The profitability of small single-market banks in an era of multi-market banking

This paper examines the relationship between the profitability of small single-market banks and the presence in the market of large banking organizations and banking organizations that operate primarily outside of the local banking market. We find that, in rural banking markets, the profitability of small single-market banks is significantly related to the presence of both large and small primarily-out-of-market banks. We also find that an increased presence of large or small primarily-out-of-market banks in rural banking markets reduces the positive effect of an increase in concentration on small single-market bank profits. This finding is consistent with theoretical predictions reported in the recent literature and has important implications for antitrust policy. In urban banking markets, we find little evidence of any relationship between the profitability of small single-market banks and the presence of large or primarily-out-of-market banks.     

Withdrawal from Foreign Lending in the Financial Crisis by Parent Banks and Their Branches and Subsidiaries: Supply Versus Demand Effects

This study investigates the different channels through which internationally active banks can provide loans abroad. Using data on German banks from 2002 to 2010, we contrast determinants for cross-border lending by the parent bank with lending by affiliates located abroad. We show that lending by parent banks is based almost entirely on supply-side determinants, in particular on bank-specific factors. The more the loans are intermediated by banks’ affiliates located abroad, the more relevant become foreign countries’ demand and risk characteristics. This applies in particular when banks operate via locally focused affiliates - rather than regionally active hub affiliates - as well as when the affiliates have the status of branches as opposed to legally independent subsidiaries. In general, banks with a greater risk aversion withdraw more from foreign lending during the financial crisis, especially following the collapse of Lehman Brothers. However, at a Tier I capital ratio of around 11 %, a further increase in the ratio did not affect lending anymore.     

The dynamics of US bank profitability

We examine the determinants of profitability for a large sample of US banks over the period 1984–2010. Specifically, we assess the extent to which short-run profits persist, and whether such persistence is affected by changes in regulation and the recent financial crisis. Our findings suggest that the competitive process reduces positions of abnormal profitability, albeit this is not immediate. There is also evidence that changes in regulation enacted during the 1990s affected both the level and persistence of bank profitability. The financial crisis of 2007–2010 appears to have resulted in an increase in the persistence of bank profitability.     

Moral Hazard and Optimal Subsidiary Structure for Financial Institutions

Banks and related financial institutions often have two separate subsidiaries that make loans of similar type but differing risk, for example, a bank and a finance company, or a “good bank/bad bank” structure. Such “bipartite” structures may prevent risk shifting, in which banks misuse their flexibility in choosing and monitoring loans to exploit their debt holders. By “insulating” safer loans from riskier loans, a bipartite structure reduces risk‐shifting incentives in the safer subsidiary. Bipartite structures are more likely to dominate unitary structures as the downside from riskier loans is higher or as expected profits from the efficient loan mix are lower.     

银行市值的重要性与中国银行业估值偏低的讨论

中国大型银行股改上市后的规模和利润增长很快,核心指标也基本上与国际银行比肩,但估值水平却低于美国的银行同业.虽然业界对于银行的评价方法一直备受争议,越来越多的人已经意识到,资产规模、盈利能力、资产质量等评价指标只能反映银行某一方面的能力,不能全面反映银行的综合实力和竞争力;相对而言,市值指标是一种长期趋势性判断,隐含了...     

Bank mergers: Integration and profitability

The Treasury Department's 1991 recommendations for financial service reform would have allowed interstate branching by banks, eliminating the requirement that banking companies form a separate subsidiary for each state in which they do business. Supporters of the proposal argue that allowing bank holding companies to merge their subsidiary banks would improve performance. We tested this proposition by studying the before- and-after performance of all bank mergers in the New England states between 1982 and 1987. In the aggregate, merging banks did not achieve significant improvements in operating profits relative to other banks during the first two years after a merger. It is important to distinguish, however, between mergers of newly acquired banks and mergers of banks acquired earlier by the holding company. Mergers of previously acquired banks performed significantly better than mergers of newly acquired banks and, measured by operating return on assets, achieved significant performance improvements relative to the industry.This article may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the authors, who hold the copyright.     

How banks go abroad: Branches or subsidiaries?

We examine the factors influencing international banks’ organizational form, using an original database on the operations in Latin America and Eastern Europe of the world’s top 100 banks. We find that banks are more likely to operate as branches in countries that have higher taxes and lower regulatory restrictions on bank entry and on foreign branches. Subsidiary operations are preferred by banks seeking to penetrate host markets by establishing large retail operations. Finally, economic and political risks have opposite effects, suggesting that legal differences in parent banks’ responsibilities associated with branches and subsidiaries are important determinants of banks’ organizational form.     

Captive finance and firm's competitiveness

We study the effects of establishment of a captive finance subsidiary on parent firm's competitiveness. Firms with captives have higher profitability, larger market share, lower volatility of sales, and maintain lower cash balances. Following the establishment of a captive, a firm's profitability and its industry market share gradually increase, but it takes about four years to become economically relevant. Stock returns of companies with captive finance subsidiaries correlate more with finance industry returns than stock returns of companies without captives. We estimate that captives generate about 17% of parents' net income. Thus, significant part of profits of the largest U.S. industrial corporations comes from what in essence are financial services.     

What determines differences in foreign bank efficiency? Australian evidence

This study examines the factors that determine differences in efficiency of foreign banks in the host market (Australia). The impact of home market, host market and parent bank characteristics are considered within the frameworks offered by comparative advantage and new trade theories. Parametric distance functions are used to estimate the efficiency of foreign banks in Australia, and the robustness of model specification is tested using both general-to-specific modelling and extreme bounds analysis. It is found that following clients reduces the efficiency of profit creation. Incumbent bank's market share acts as a barrier to entry, while parent bank profits do not improve host nation efficiency. The limited global advantage hypothesis was found to be relevant for banks from the United Kingdom, while banks from the United States were generally less efficient.     

Determinants of Commercial Bank Interest Margins and Profitability: Some International Evidence

Using bank-level data for 80 countries in the years 1988–95,this article shows that differences in interest margins andbank profitability reflect a variety of determinants: bank characteristics,macroeconomic conditions, explicit and implicit bank taxation,deposit insurance regulation, overall financial structure, andunderlying legal and institutional indicators. A larger ratioof bank assets to gross domestic product and a lower marketconcentration ratio lead to lower margins and profits, controllingfor differences in bank activity, leverage, and the macroeconomicenvironment. Foreign banks have higher margins and profits thandomestic banks in developing countries, while the opposite holdsin industrial countries. Also, there is evidence that the corporatetax burden is fully passed onto bank customers, while higherreserve requirements are not, especially in developing countries.     

The entry and the activity level of foreign banks in Italy: An analysis of the determinants

Although the theory of multinational banking has pointed out the importance of local profit opportunities, the empirical evidence is still poor and deserves further investigation. To this end, we analyse entry decisions and activity levels of foreign banks operating in Italy between 1983 and 1998. We consider 22 OECD countries, 10 of which had at least one bank (branch or subsidiary) in Italy. Entries and activity levels were related to the degree of economic integration as well as to the financial market features of the home country relative to Italy.Unlike other studies, besides economic integration, the relative profitability of the banking activity proves to be a significant variable in that it highlights the importance of local market conditions. In the past decade, increased competition in the Italian banking sector has reduced these profit opportunities, driving foreign banks towards more innovative sectors of financial intermediation.     

资产证券化对商业银行盈利的影响——异质性视角下的研究

本文以中国银行业为研究样本,考察资产证券化对银行盈利的影响.研究发现:资产证券化显著促进银行盈利增长,并且该效应对于非上市银行与规模较小银行更为显著;对于资产流动性结构更为合理、风险承担水平更低、资本充足状况及经营绩效更好的中小银行而言,资产证券化对盈利能力的正向效应更强;同时基于时间变化趋势的检验显示,在发行首笔资产...     

Have changes in the financial structure affected bank profitability? Evidence for Austria

We examine the impact of changes in the financial structure of the Austrian banking sector over the past 15 years, such as disintermediation, internationalization and privatization, on the profitability of banks. Several proxies based on bank balance sheet data at the micro-level as well as macroeconomic variables are used to capture these changes. The case of Austria is particularly interesting because the opening up of the Austrian banking sector due to EU accession and the strong engagement of Austrian banks in Eastern Europe coincided with the global trend toward deregulation of banking activities. Our estimation results, which are based on dynamic panel regression methods, indicate that disintermediation (a lower percentage of loans over total assets) and higher market concentration in the banking sector had a positive effect on bank profitability, while changes in the ownership structure (privatization and increased foreign ownership) as well as more foreign lending by Austrian banks did not have a clear-cut or significant impact on bank profits.