The Tourism Workforce and Policy: Exploring the Assumptions using Crete as the Case Study

The size of the tourism workforce has grown rapidly to the extent that today, travel and tourism is considered to be the world's largest employer. The potential of tourism for generating jobs in areas where there are few other alternatives for employment has resulted in many governments electing to expand their tourism industry. Nevertheless, tourism has been criticised for creating part-time, seasonal, low quality and informal jobs often occupied by migrants and females. This paper sets out the main characteristics of the tourism workforce as reported by academic papers, identifies whether the same characteristics are evident on the island of Crete (Greece), and discusses the issues surrounding tourism policy formulation in relation to the tourism workforce of Crete. The conclusion is that very often jobs in tourism are judged, and responses formulated, on a normative (value laden) basis (an ideal) without full consideration being given to the actual (technical) underpinnings and implications.     

The contribution of Neil Leiper to tourism studies

Neil Leiper was an influential tourism scholar who died in February 2010. The paper provides a review of his work and his contribution to tourism studies. Four major themes are identified from the time of his first major publication in 1979 up until his death: tourism systems, partial industrialisation, tourist attraction systems and strategy. Works in the first three areas are identified as having a significant influence on tourism literature and the conceptualisation of tourism as a discipline and the manner in which it is defined for both research and educational purposes. The connections between theory and strategy are noted which led to an important tourism text as well as the development of several cases of business failures, which Leiper argues is a significant subject for tourism education. The review concludes by identifying his legacy for the study of tourism.     

Basic Questions of 'Sustainable Tourism': Does Ecological and Socially Acceptable Tourism Have a Chance?

This paper examines the tourism market and its effects on the national economy. Ecological and socio-cultural problems cannot be denied. Due to an ever-increasing number of tourists, studies of tourism specific problems are necessary. To suggest and understand steps for the realisation of sustainable tourism, the author demands a glance at the whole tourism system, which he does by giving an overview of the tourism industry with obvious problems in that field. There is an analysis of the development of tourism demand, and the question whether there is something like 'sustainable mass tourism'. The increasing awareness of the environment plays an important role when it comes to tourism and selecting a tourism destination. The paper tries to find answers to promote a more sustainable tourism through tour operators and tourism companies, which can be a niche strategy for small or medium sized businesses. Strategical points (approaches) of a more sustainable tourism are shown. The realisation of sustainable tourism can be an economical opportunity for tourism companies in the long term, but according to the author the immediate risks involved in such a strategy can outweigh the benefits. There are also limits in carrying out more sustainable tourism programmes.     

Wellness Tourism in China: Resources,Development and Marketing

China's natural and cultural resources are the foremost offerings of the country's wellness tourism sector. Although wellness tourism in China is in its infancy, it can offer new opportunities in, and strengthen the overall competitiveness of, China's tourism industry. To achieve this, the assessment and development of wellness tourism resources in China are required. This study examines the potential for wellness tourism development in terms of resources and promotion from the point of view of wellness tourism experts. It surveys professionals working in tourism, health and education in China. The results reveal that environmental assets, including fresh air, clean water and natural features, are considered the most important attributes for the development of wellness tourism in China and that the promotion of wellness tourism can best be achieved through advertising in mass media, governmental support and organizing new regional events. The study implications and future research directions are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Collaborative Tourism Planning: A Case Study of Cusco,Peru

This research examines issues concerning the collaborative approach towards tourism planning, with a focus on Cusco, Peru. The research begins with a review of key themes related to collaborative tourism planning, and then explores four issues in relation to collaborative tourism planning in Cusco. These are the vision of tourism development among tourism stakeholders; collaboration and coordination between the multiple parties involved in tourism; input from the tourism industry and other interest groups in tourism planning; and constraints to and facilitators of collaboration and coordination. The research indicates that despite an awareness of the benefits of collaboration in tourism planning generally, collaboration is not yet a major part of the tourism development process in Cusco. The main reasons for the lack of collaboration are outlined using the views of the main stakeholders, as well as suggestions for ways in which future collaboration can be developed.     

Ecological tourism in the state image policy structure. Experience and problems of modern Russia

The article deals with the problems of ecological tourism in Russia. The authors give various approaches to the understanding of ecological tourism in modern science, analyse the reasons of interest in this kind of tourism, consider its types and identify specific features. The article provides an overview of the main regions and countries where ecological tourism is developed at a high level and considers some national policy models in the field of ecological tourism. Specific attention is paid to the analysis of the development of ecological tourism in Russia and its current status; the examples of different programmes aiming at support of ecological tourism are given. Specific impetus is given to Russia's resources for the development of ecological tourism, for example, natural landscapes, national parks and nature heritage sites. The authors explore the main challenges to ecological tourism in Russia, identify factors that hinder its development and suggest measures to improve the ecological tourism in the Russian Federation. The authors focus on the projects that promote the improvement of Russia's image as an eco-touristic destination. The authors pay specific attention to the analysis of international cooperation in this field. The article discusses various projects carried out within the framework of bilateral cooperation. The article discusses the role of ecological tourism as a tool for image policy. The article analyses in detail which elements of the Russian image are under the influence of ecological tourism and what are the future prospects of ecological tourism.     

Sustainability in coastal tourism development: an example from Denmark

Denmark’s coastlines have been protected from tourism development and construction for more than 80 years. In 2014, the Danish politicians opened up for softer regulation of the coastlines and invited proposals for tourism development projects within the hitherto protected coastal zone. The call explicitly requested nominations for sustainable tourism projects. A comparison between academic sustainability discourse and the approved projects suggests that tourism actors do not address sustainable tourism development as a holistic concept. Long-term perspectives are largely absent, whereas economic benefits are emphasized. Key findings also indicate weak political leadership in the envisaged transfer towards sustainable tourism development.     

Representing protected areas: a critical discourse analysis of tourism destination building in a Greek travel magazine

The present paper examines the way protected areas are constructed as tourism destinations by the information sources (i.e. a Greek travel magazine) that are consumed by potential visitors to such areas. Specifically, it explores what form of tourism is proposed for virtual visitors, whether it is ecotourism (i.e. both tourism and environmentalism) or simply a nature‐based one (i.e. exclusively tourism). Examining the way a Greek travel magazine builds protected areas as tourism destinations, and consequently what expectations are created for readers and potential visitors to such areas, the focus of the present paper is on whether the media contribute to the failure on the part of visitors to protected areas, who are the majority of the people engaging in ecotourism activities, to incorporate environmentalist besides tourism pursuits in their travel experiences. The analysis suggests that the travel magazine cultivates the view that other protected areas (with a tradition in mass tourism) are suitable for nature‐based tourism, others (with great ecological interest) for environmentalism, but few for ecotourism. This means that visitors to protected areas will probably have a difficulty in combining tourism with environmentalist pursuits, rather than in developing environmentalist concerns in general. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identifying micro-destinations and providing statistical information: a pilot study in the Canary Islands

Municipalities and regions are often used as an object of tourism analysis at the subnational level. This occurs because administrative borders are used to implement tourism policies and collect statistical information. However, administrative boundaries may not always be suitable for studying tourism destinations at a local level. Sometimes, particularly in high-density tourism destinations, several differentiated tourism areas occupy a single municipality; tourism areas may, and often do, extend beyond municipal boundaries and tourism destinations may not occupy the whole of the municipal area. As such, a new level of analysis is often required: the micro-destination. There are few tourism concepts as imprecise as that of the destination. Therefore, the process of identifying and establishing the boundaries of a micro-destination is by no means a straightforward one. This paper presents six criteria for establishing the boundaries of this type of tourism area. Of these six, the two primary criteria used are: the concentration of tourism establishments; and tourism typologies and supply characteristics. These criteria have been applied as part of a pilot study in the Canary Islands. Statistical information for nine micro-destinations is generated using the geolocation of tourism establishments together with information obtained from both supply-side and demand-side surveys.     

Small island urban tourism: a residents' perspective

The impacts of tourism have been given much consideration by scholars attempting to investigate the attitudes of the host population toward tourism. Such studies have been carried out in rural, coastal as well as in urban areas. However, most studies on urban tourism impacts have been conducted in the context of the developed world, whereas very little research has been carried out in the urban environment of Small Island Developing States. Using a sample size of 230 residents, this study contributes to the limited literature on urban tourism in islands by examining the residents' attitudes toward tourism in Port Louis, the capital city of the island of Mauritius. Findings suggest that while the positive impacts of tourism are well recognized by the residents, the latter are also concerned with some negative influence of tourism in Port Louis. Residents were found not to be homogeneous in their perceptions toward tourism. Employment in tourism was found to be an antecedent of attitudes. Gender and age were also found to be discriminators toward some tourism impact. Findings also revealed that residents were supportive of cultural tourism development. Implications for the management of the small island urban tourism are also discussed.     

Tourism Innovation in the Global South: Evidence from the Western Cape,South Africa

A research gap exists for the conceptual strengthening, measurement and analysis of innovation at the tourism firm and systems levels, especially in the context of the global South. This paper investigates tourism innovation in the Western Cape region of South Africa. In particular, the nature and types of innovation by tourism firms and system actors are interrogated. It is revealed that innovation by tourism firms is widespread, albeit is largely incremental in nature. The main contribution of this research is the development of an expanded evidence‐based tourism innovation typology from a cross‐sectoral survey of tourism firms and qualitative interviews undertaken with tourism system actors. In addition, recommendations are provided regarding measurement of innovation in tourism. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Is the tourism‐led growth hypothesis valid for malaysia? a view from disaggregated tourism markets

This research note attempts to re‐investigate the validity of tourism‐led growth hypothesis for Malaysia based on the data set of 12 different tourism markets from January 1995 to February 2009. The error‐correction modelling‐based cointegration test shows that economic growth and international tourist arrivals are cointegrated for all tourism markets. Nevertheless, the Granger causality results demonstrate that not all international tourism markets Granger‐cause economic growth. Therefore, identification of potential tourism markets is vital for implementing effective tourism marketing policies. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Stakeholder perspectives on the European Union tourism policy framework and their preferences on the type of involvement

Despite a growing body of literature on regional trading agreements and tourism, little empirical evidence exists on how tourism policy is formulated at the supranational level. The study focuses on the European Union and employs stakeholder interviews to construct the institutional environment for tourism and to identify potential areas for involvement in tourism. Four different approaches are identified ranging from maintaining the status quo to a common tourism policy. It is concluded that because of the complexities of the institutional environment for tourism and the diversity of opinion among stakeholders, a significant change in the status quo is unlikely to happen. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Indigenous Tourism Policy in Australia: 25 Years of Rhetoric and Economic Rationalism

Successive Australian federal and State governments have produced tourism policies to facilitate the development of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander [ATSI] tourism. However, the effectiveness and appropriateness of these policies has been questioned. This paper describes a qualitative study examining federal and Queensland State governments' ATSI tourism policies during the period 1975 to 1999. Three main findings of the study were: (1) ATSI tourism policies are published in an ad hoc manner and appear to be related to a reactive approach by governments to broader ATSI social and economic issues; (2) economic concerns dominate ATSI tourism policies and emphasise the commodification of indigenous tourism; and (3) policies are strongly reflective of an economic-rationalist ideology. The study concludes that the emphasis on economic rationalism assists Australian tourism enterprises to be internationally competitive but may create undesirable consequences for indigenous tourism stakeholders.     

Research Note: Addressing Tourism Public Policy Issues through Attitude Segmentation of Host Communities

Resident attitudes are important in identifying the impact of tourism within communities and in determining local policy, planning and management responses for the development of tourism. Additionally, tourism policies established are vital for the marketing of cities, regions and countries. This paper examines tourism public policy, with particular reference to the importance of addressing host community interests and involving host communities in public policy decision making. It outlines a segmentation study undertaken on New Zealand residents' views on tourism and how these segments can be applied to tourism policy making.     

Enclave tourism versus agritourism: the economic debate

The approaches to tourism development vary in different settings. The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the conversation on the relative economic advantages of enclave and agritourism in a small island context. This study explicitly discusses these two forms of tourism in the island of Mauritius where tourism is a key pillar of the local economy. This study uses a novel format where stakeholder perspectives are reviewed based on a simulated debate between two sets of advocates. The debate arguments rely on a grounded methodology where in-depth interviews were conducted to gather the opinions of three substantial groups of stakeholders: notably, government officials, business interests and local community members. The multi-faceted arguments are built on the identified local concerns and perspectives and provide a forum for the voices of diverse participants from the tourism world of Mauritius. The format offers a rich, realistic set of arguments exploring the economic merits of both forms of tourism in a specific setting. Five main themes influence the economic support for tourism development: certainty of tourism income, scale of tourism development, employment, regional disparity and the challenge of change.     

Gastrodiplomacy in tourism

This conceptual paper articulates gastrodiplomacy in tourism as an area of study and policy. Gastrodiplomacy, the strategic use of cuisine in influencing perceptions of a nation, is positioned within the public diplomacy spectrum, and the intersections among food, tourism and diplomacy – in theory and practice – are investigated. The roles of food and tourism in nation branding are explored, leading to a detailed exposition on the multiple ways in which tourism is implicated in national gastrodiplomacy campaigns, as well as in grassroots “citizen diplomacy” involving food. The “ambassadorial” roles performed by people and the various “zones of contact” at which gastrodiplomacy in tourism is played out are identified as aspects of particular relevance for study. The paper calls for more integrated and holistic approaches to gastrodiplomacy in tourism, both in research and in policy, that address the tourism “foodscape” of a nation as a whole, as a realm of diplomatic potential.     

Contradictions of Rural Tourism Initiatives in Rural Development Contexts: Finnish Rural Tourism Strategy Case Study

In Western countries rural areas have faced major changes and challenges in the past decades. The role of traditional economies has decreased rapidly and the economic transition of rural areas has turned increasingly towards tourism production. By using a Finnish national scale rural tourism strategy and development programme as a case example, this paper argues that, while tourism can provide development for rural areas, the unrealistic expectations and goals may cause problems for rural communities. Unfeasible development goals of rural tourism are seen as the results of insufficient understanding of tourism dynamics and the lack of research-based or otherwise valid knowledge in development plans. In addition the connection between the ideas of rural tourism and sustainability is challenged in high tourism development goals and the related processes.     

Mitigating Gender Inequality in Rural Regions: The Effects of Tourism Employment in Namibia

We examine the effects of tourism employment on gender inequality in Namibia. We find that tourism contributes to local livelihoods by providing opportunities for cash income through employment, craft sales and shareholder profits from tourism enterprises. In general, male‐headed households are economically better off. Female‐headed households with tourism employment are better off than those without and are as equally well‐off as male‐headed households. We find no significant statistical difference between male‐headed households with tourism employment and those without it. These findings suggest that tourism provides specific advantages for women and helps mitigate gender inequality in areas where tourism employment is available. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Agglomeration Density and Labor Productivity in China's Tourism Industry

The primary objective of this study is to examine the extent to which tourism agglomeration density contributes to tourism labor productivity across the provinces of China. This objective is achieved by analyzing a panel dataset from 2000 to 2011. Our estimation results indicate that tourism industry agglomeration density and per capita capital stock are important determinants of labor productivity and that the benefits of locating in dense areas can offset the associated costs for tourism firms. However, diverse industrial circumstances have a negative effect on tourism labor productivity of tourism firms, such as star‐rated hotels, travel agencies, scenic spots, transportation enterprises and other firms. These results are robust for a large series of empirical tests. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.