Does tourism cause growth? Evidence from Turkey

This paper examines the impact of detailed tourism expenditure on the long-run economic growth by employing Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) approach and causality test for data set of 2003:1 to 2012:4 in Turkey. The detailed tourism expenditure data are firstly employed for the causality of tourism expenditure on economic growth. The results of the bounds test show that there is a stable long-run relationship between accommodation expenses, transport expenditure, expenditure of sporting activities, sightseeing tour expenditure, clothing–footwear expenditure, gift expenditure and economic growth. The results of the causality test, on the other hand, show that there is a bidirectional causality between accommodation expenses, expenditure of sporting activities, gift expenditure and economic growth and a causal flow from transport expenditure to economic growth which is verified growth-led tourism hypothesis. Results reveal that sightseeing tour expenditure and expenditure of sporting activities are more successful on explaining the long-run growth in Turkey in terms of ARDL coefficients size. This result implies a policy that Turkey needs to invest tourism to gain more especially by focusing accommodation, sightseeing tours, sporting activities and transport infrastructure.     

Are Turkey's tourism markets converging? Evidence from the two-step LM and three-step RALS-LM unit root tests

In this study, we aim to analyse whether Turkey's 14 major tourist source markets are converging by using monthly data over the period January 1996 to December 2012. To this aim, we use the recently developed two-step Lagrange multiplier (LM) and three-step residual augmented least squares-Lagrange multiplier (RALS-LM) unit root tests that allow for two structural breaks in data. The results indicate that 10 out of 14 markets are converging, meaning that tourism policies and strategies directed at these markets are successful. Furthermore, the break points correspond to the important political, social, natural and economic events such as crisis, earthquake, disease and terrorist attack.     

How do carriers price connecting flights? Evidence from intercontinental flights from Europe

In civil aviation, hub-and-spoke (HS) networks are used by all large carriers. The importance of this system implies that many travelers use connecting flights. Nevertheless, only scarce knowledge is available on price formation of these trips. In this paper, we focus on the fares of connecting intercontinental flights, with one stop and at least one competing direct flight. We develop a simple model of a HS network, with imperfect substitutability between direct and indirect flights and Cournot competition on every route in the network. We test the model empirically, using reported fares for flights from seven European origins, including the five major airports in Europe, to five non-European destinations. We find that the fare of a connecting flight can be expressed as the weighted average of the fare of its direct competitor, the travel times of both flights its costs and the monetary value of the utility attached to the trip. The weight of the direct fare decreases as product diversity increases.     

Airline type and tourist expenditure: Are full service and low cost carriers converging or diverging?

Since some years ago low-cost carriers (LCCs) are becoming less and less low-cost-like, as well as full-service airlines are becoming less and less full-service-like, thus contributing to lessen the differences between users of one airline type and the other. LCCs have made air travel available to all budgets and enabled tourists to spend more at destination by reallocating their trip expenditure. The objective of this article is to observe if airline types have been converging regarding travellers’ expenditure allocation and total trip expenditure. We use repeated cross sections of the Spanish tourist expenditure survey between 2006 and 2014, and compositional data analysis with a total in order not to confound effects involving expenditure allocation with those involving expenditure volume. Results show that users of both airline types converge in their allocation of the trip budget (between transportation and at-destination expenses, and within at-destination expenses), but diverge with regard to total trip expenditure.     

Quo vadis,international long-distance railway services? Evidence from Central Europe

International railway passenger services have seen considerable changes in Europe over the past few decades. Using international railway connections within and reaching outside the V4 countries (the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia) in 1990–2019 as a sample, our paper explores trends and patterns in that matter in Central Europe. We have found that the characteristic focus on relatively very frequent short or medium-distance connections using the best equipped railway corridors – paralleled by a considerable reduction of the remaining services – has also been clearly in evidence in this part of the world. However, trends and patterns in Central Europe are not necessarily a mirror image of what has occurred in Western Europe. For instance, although a considerable shortening of travel times has indeed been observed, it has been achieved – characteristically – thanks to the improved permeability of state borders after the enlargement of the EU in 2004, with only moderate improvements to infrastructure being made. Central Europe therefore seems to be the prime example of an area in which contextual, political and geopolitical factors are the keys to understanding the dynamics of changes in transport systems. On the other hand, evidence from this region may give rise to some reflections on the possible roles for the European long-distance rail transport in the future. To begin with, our results show 800 km to be the threshold beyond which the competitive position of rail becomes significantly lower. Secondly, competitive pressure from innovative newcomers (Regiojet, LeoExpress, Arriva) clearly makes national incumbents more flexible and pro-active. Thirdly, the noticeable spatial re-orientation of international railway connections from the V4 countries towards Vienna and Munich (at the expense of Berlin) that we have observed is partly related to the appeal of these cities as multimodal gates with excellent locations within European transport networks. It would therefore seem that the railways in this part of Europe have been attempting to become an integral part of the international multi-modal long-distance transport system.     

Who could benefit from a bus rapid transit system in cities from developing countries? A case study from Kampala,Uganda

The present rapid urban growth of cities from developing countries causes negative externalities such as lagging infrastructure development. In combination with rapidly rising motorized vehicle use this leads to severe traffic congestion affecting the mobility of the urban residents. Therefore many urban governments are planning to improve their transport and mobility situations with mass rapid transit systems of which a bus rapid transit (BRT) is a rather easy system to implement at reasonable costs. However, due to high urban inequalities the effects of urban traffic and potential improvements of the urban transport system for the diverse group of urban residents can differ significantly. In our case study Kampala (Uganda) four main groups were identified through cluster analysis of socio-economic and residential data gathered through interviews: extreme poor, poor, middle income and rich. Each group experiences a different mobility with the extreme poor being the most vulnerable group. The planned BRT system aims to decrease the average travel time but risks to exclude the lowest income class since not enough attention is paid to the affordability of the system to all residents. Therefore we argue for a policy that works from bottom up and pays attention to the internal diversity of the population.     

Is there growth impact of tourism? Evidence from selected small island states

This study investigates the growth impact of international tourist arrivals on carbon emissions in selected small island states via Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis. The study employed a panel-based multivariate model for seven small islands between the periods of 1995 and 2013 to evaluate the long-run equilibrium relationships between international tourism and carbon emissions through the channels of energy consumption and economic growth. Findings from the panel cointegration results show the existence of a long-run equilibrium relationship between the variables of interest. International tourist arrivals have a negatively significant impact on carbon dioxide emissions in the long run. Thus, we infer that the law of diminishing marginal returns with regard to tourism-induced EKC hypothesis holds in the case of small island states.     

Do people consider an acceptable travel time? Evidence from Berkeley,CA

This paper explores the extent to which people identify an acceptable travel time for each trip they want to make and investigates the primary characteristics of this behavioural threshold. We assume that an acceptable travel time is defined through utilitarian processes that are related to cognitive and affective evaluations of travel that develop throughout a person’s lifetime. We apply a mixed methods approach to explore our hypothesis, based on semi-structured in-depth interviews with a stratified, according to commuting mode, random sample of 20 individuals living in Berkeley, CA. Our results support the validity of the acceptable travel time concept and offer (a) initial evidence on its variation to the travel mode and sociodemographic characteristics and (b) insights into people’s perceptions, attitudes, feelings and experiences about their travel. Thus, our results can contribute to a better understanding of individuals’ travel decisions and valuation of travel time and can inform time–space and accessibility research.     

Does tourism-led growth hypothesis exist in Mauritius? Evidence from disaggregated tourism markets

We use the data of total tourism market and 10 major tourism markets in Mauritius to test the validity of tourism-led growth hypothesis in the country for the period 1980–2011. Using causality techniques, we confirm the hypothesis for the total tourism market. However, tourism-led growth exists in only 6 of the 10 markets. We conclude that not all tourism markets are contributing substantially to Mauritius’ economy.     

How inter-city high-speed rail influences tourism arrivals: evidence from social media check-in data

This paper attempts to investigate the impacts of inter-city high-speed rail (HSR) on tourism arrivals by employing a novel data of check-ins generated from social media. This type of check-in data collected in a case study (Hangzhou, China) reveals its high correlation with tourism activities and is feasible to act as a proxy of real tourism arrivals. A nonlinear regression model is developed to discover the temporal redistribution of tourism arrivals caused by HSR on weekends and holidays. Results show that Nanjing–Hangzhou HSR can significantly raise the number of visitors from Nanjing with a growth of 29.44% on Saturdays and 41.72% on Sundays. Further analysis on hourly distribution of these check-ins on weekends detects early arrival on Friday nights and longer stay on Sunday afternoons after HSR operates. Moreover, negative effect of seasonal climate change on tourism is also alleviated by HSR. This paper verifies the effectiveness of social media check-in data in tourism research and proposes practicable methodologies to quantitatively analyse this type of data.     

Do contractual practices affect technical efficiency? Evidence from public transport operators in China

This paper presents a discussion on the causal effect of contractual practices on the technical efficiency of Chinese public transport operators. To test this proposition, an original panel data set covering 47 operators over the period 2008–2013 is used, we firstly estimate the technical efficiency based on the stochastic frontier approach in a time-varying form of the trans-log production function, and then consider a propensity score matching approach to assess the causal effect between them. The econometric results corroborate this proposition that gross cost contracts offer more incentives to technical efficiency than net cost contracts and management contracts.     

Where to vacation? An agent-based approach to modelling tourist decision-making process

Agent-based models (ABMs) are becoming more relevant in social simulation due to the potential to model complex phenomena that emerge from individual interactions. In tourism research, complexity is a subject of growing interest and researchers start to analyse the tourism system as a complex phenomenon. However, there is little application of ABMs as a tool to explore and predict tourism patterns. The purpose of the paper is to develop an ABM that increases knowledge in tourism research by (i) considering the complexity of tourism phenomenon, (ii) providing tools to explore the complex relations between system components and (iii) giving insights on the functioning of the system and the tourist decision-making process. A theoretical ABM is developed to improve knowledge on tourist decision-making in the selection of a destination to vacation. Tourists’ behaviour, such as individual motivation, and social network influence in the vacation decision-making process are hereby discussed.     

What the newcomers to transit-oriented development are confronted with? Evidence from Iranian policy and planning

Today, the American model of Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has gained widespread adoption around the world. Together with pioneer cities in the U.S., Japan, Singapore, and other European countries, there are newcomers to TOD, mainly from the cities located in the developing countries with rapid urbanization and motorization trends, with the purpose of benefiting from TOD advantages in response to the apparently unsustainable traffic-caused challenges. Opportunities, challenges and prerequisites needed for TOD planning seem to have been unclear so far for such nations. Hence, the present study, aims to fill this gap through examining an analytical framework for TOD planning in the case of Iran. The recent policies on TOD also have been initiated at both national and local levels in this country. Directed content analysis of 11 call interviews with Iranian urban professionals and government officials demonstrated that, as with global experiences, adversary physical characteristics and policy background of Iranian cities tremendously preclude joint transport land-use initiatives so that the nature of urban (transport) policies and planning as well as the resulting urban form are both car-oriented. As such, there is a great deal of fundamental works that should be accomplished by the newcomers. The results showed the extent to which the conditions for TOD newcomers are similar which could provide a common framework to the future customized analysis of the individual challenges and planning prerequisites.     

Are intrazonal trips ignorable?

Intrazonal trips are not always included in model estimation because they do not appear on a network in centroid-to-centroid travel. It is also presumed that their exclusion does not affect model results. This paper tests the above presumption by examining the assumptions of ignorable missingness. The results indicate that omitting intrazonal trips in model estimation results in biased sample. Consequently, parameter estimates get biased. The paper also compares the results of travel mode choice models by excluding and including the intrazonal trips in model estimation.     

Whether low-cost-carrier passengers spend more on duty-free goods at the airport? Evidence from Incheon International Airport

With a dramatic growth in the low-cost carrier (LCC) traffic around the world, many airports have built budget terminals to accommodate the LCC flights with cheaper airport charge to the airlines but inferior shopping environment and service quality to the passengers. This study aims to answer the following research questions: i). Whether the LCC passengers have higher purchasing power than FSC (full-service carrier) passengers for the airport concessions, particularly the duty-free goods? ii). Would the budget terminal design contribute to or jeopardize the LCC passengers' airport concession expenditure? iii). How could the airport operator maximize its concession revenue by re-designing terminal or re-allocating flight slots? We collect the actual airport duty-free transaction data from Incheon International Airport (ICN) for an empirical investigation. Our empirical evidence first suggests that LCC passengers could have comparable or even higher purchasing power than FSC passengers in consuming duty-free goods at the airport. Among all the LCC passengers, Chinese have the highest purchasing power. Second, the inferior shopping environment and service quality of budget terminal seriously jeopardize the duty-free sales from the LCC passengers. Third, counterfactual analyses show that, if ICN could convert its budget terminal into a conventional terminal, 44 million USD more duty-free sales can be generated per year. Even keeping the current terminal design, re-allocating the LCC flights between the budget terminal and conventional terminal could bring approximately 4.9 million USD more duty-free sales per year. The findings provide managerial implications to ICN and other airports for effective airport revenue management. First, the budget terminal design may not be ideal to accommodate LCC traffic as it damages the concession revenue from particular LCC passengers with high purchasing power. Second, exploring the concession revenue from the growing LCC traffic could help maintain an airport's advantage in aeronautical charge under single-till regulation.     

Is social class still working? Revisiting the social class division in tourist consumption

The effects of social class division have been extensively examined in tourist behaviour studies, but mostly on specific tourism forms, attractions, or activities. Limited empirical research has looked into the effects of social class difference (as well as other demographic variables) on tourists' destination consumption in a holistic and comprehensive way. To revisit the role of social class in today's tourist consumption, this study stratified a group of American tourists based on their social class and compared their participation patterns in four types of destination activities: cultural, hedonic, nature-based, and shopping-related. The empirical data were from a conversion and destination branding study conducted for Thoroughbred Country, South Carolina. The analysis gained mixed results, as social class was found to have significant impacts on tourists' consumption of certain destination products/activities, but not on others. It was expected that this study could not only contribute to the research endeavours in tourist consuming behaviour, but also provide practical implications for more effective destination marketing and market segmentation strategies.     

Are airlines' price-setting strategies different?

Using a sample of fare quotes for non-stop travel from New York to London, this paper documents a set of stylized facts about pricing strategies of air carriers on this route. Two key facts stand out. First, airlines appear to employ strikingly different pricing strategies. Second, fares increase at an accelerated rate as the departure date approaches.     

The tourist with a hidden agenda? Shifting roles in the field of tourism research

This article focuses on the way tourism researchers have to shift between different roles when in the field. The complex reality of the tourism arena with its multidisciplinary character requires a certain flexibility when it comes to the approach and perspective used by the researcher when interacting with the actors in the field. This role switching and flexibility has certain consequences when it comes to the position of the researcher. Furthermore, contemporary developments in the world (such as globalisation, technological developments and increased human mobility) have altered the practice of ethnographic research. The article explores and reflects upon some of the (methodological) issues that tourism researcher are confronted with when conducting ethnographic research, by discussing a number of empirical examples from different researchers in the field. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley &Sons, Ltd.     

Near “real-time” estimation of excess commuting from open-source data: Evidence from China's megacities

Urban commuting has continuously fascinated scholars and decision-makers. As few people live and work in the same place, there is always excess commuting (i.e., the non-optimal or surplus work travel occurring in cities because people do not minimize their journeys to work for most residents). Traditional commuting data sources (e.g., questionnaires and census surveys) are challenged by small samples, high cost, and low spatiotemporal resolution. In contrast, the big social-sensing data (e.g., smart card and mobile phone data) only consider one or two traffic mode of a route, which is not consistent with the real-life condition. This article proposes a framework for modeling excess commuting based on open-source data of the ten most populous megacities in China. We downloaded residential points of interest (POIs) from Lianjia Real Estate website and obtained workplace POIs from China's AMAP, which is widespread used as Google map. The stratified sampling approach was employed to derive commuting pairs. Both commuting distance and time were obtained by the shortest path under public transportation from AMAP. Then, the linear programming method was employed to calculate the theoretical minimum commuting time and distance of each city. We analyzed the statistical property and spatial distributions of excess commuting and found that (1) commuting distances and time (ranging from 9.1 to18.1 km and from 44.8 to 74.3  minutes) of all ten megacities follow a left-skewed normal distribution; (2) in terms of commute cost, all cities show universal core-periphery patterns where the spatial heterogeneity of the commuting time is more significant than that of distance; (3) for each city, the excess commuting measured by time (i.e. from 0.61 to 0.79) is lower than that measured by distance (i.e. 0.68 to 0.89); and (4) the role of mixing land use, waterbody distribution, and centripetal urbanization on urban commuting distance and time is significant.