General and specific cancer risk perceptions: how are they related?

Understanding how people construe and act upon cancer risk is important for efforts to target risk-increasing health behaviors. Importantly, research participants are often asked to estimate their risk for cancer (in general), which could mask the fact that cancer represents a range of diseases, and that different cancer types can have distinct risk factors. It is unclear whether individuals perceive general cancer risk as being comprised of an aggregation of risk for specific cancer sites, or whether general cancer risk perceptions reflect the specific type of cancer most salient to them. In this study, general cancer risk perceptions were regressed on specific risk perceptions for colon, lung, prostate (men only), and breast (women only), using data from a nationally representative sample. We found that among men and women, all forms of cancer predicted independent variance in estimates of general cancer risk. There were also stronger relationships between general risk perceptions and each specific risk perception than between any two specific risk perceptions, suggesting that individuals differentiate between specific cancers and general cancer risk. These findings offer some confidence that people’s estimates of general cancer risk take multiple cancer types into account.     

Vulnerability,values and heterogeneity: one step further to understand risk perception and behaviour

The aim is to investigate differences in risk perception and behaviour among different population groups selected by gender, age, country of birth, disability and sexual orientation in the light of general values and vulnerability. The analyses use data from two Swedish national surveys from 2005 to 2008. People with foreign background perceive controlled and dread risks as a greater threat than do native-born people, but there is no difference in behaviour when general values and vulnerability have been controlled for. Compared to women, men rate known and dread risks as lower, but controlled risks as higher. Further, men’s behaviour is more risk-oriented and less risk-reducing, and homosexuals and bisexuals are more likely than heterosexuals to report risk behaviour. Compared to previous studies of the so-called White Male Effect carried out in the USA, gender does not play a similar role in Sweden. On the contrary, it seems as if gender is of less importance and that the strength of the association varies depending on type of risk or risk behaviour.     

Financial advice and gender: Wealthy individual investors in the UK

We examine how gender differences in investment risk tolerance, knowledge, confidence and portfolio cash allocations relate to the gender mix of investors and financial advisors among a sample of wealthy individuals in the UK. Our results demonstrate that gender effects are more nuanced than previously assumed. First, while even wealthy women consider themselves more conservative and allocate a higher proportion of their investable assets to cash than men, previous findings of lower investment knowledge and confidence do not extend to our sample. Second, having an advisor matters. Advised investors perceive themselves to have a higher risk tolerance and invest 10.6%-points more than self-directed investors. Finally, the investor-advisor gender combination matters, but only for female investors. Women with male advisors are more risk averse, feel less knowledgeable and less confident about their investment decisions. They also invest 11%-points less than women with female advisors. Indeed, female investors advised by women report the highest risk tolerance and make the lowest portfolio allocation to risk-free assets across the full sample, including men.     

Multidimensional Screening in a Monopolistic Insurance Market

We consider a population of individuals who differ in two dimensions, their risk type (expected loss) and their risk aversion, and solve for the profit-maximising menu of contracts that a monopolistic insurer puts out on the market. Our findings are threefold. First, it is never optimal to fully separate all the types. Second, if heterogeneity in risk aversion is sufficiently high, then some high-risk individuals (the risk-tolerant ones) will obtain lower coverage than some low-risk individuals (the risk-averse ones). Third, because women tend to be more risk averse than men (in that the risk aversion distribution for women first-order stochastically dominates that for men), gender discrimination may lead to a Pareto improvement.     

The consequences of perceived risk and objective knowledge for consumers’ investment behavior

Knowledge and risks have a focal role in consumer behavior. However, studies on consumers’ perceive risks in decision situations and the influence of objective knowledge and experience on risk perceptions, consumers’ attitudes and behavioral intentions are scarce. This paper introduces and tests a novel conceptual model that shows how consumers’ objective financial knowledge and investing experience affect their future investment intentions mediated by perceived risks, and attitudes toward investing. The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. The proposed model fits the data and accounts for attitudes and intentions to investing. This study advances knowledge by directly measuring the behavior-related objective knowledge and experience. We also suggest new insights into the risk concept by showing that consumers perceive five types of risk in investing context and objective financial knowledge and investment experience has varying effects on different risks types, attitudes and intentions. The results also show significant gender differences.     

The effect of prior outcomes on gender risk-taking differences

This study proposed that men are more likely to take greater risk after a win (‘house money’ effect), while women are more likely to take greater risk after a loss (‘escalation of commitment’ effect). These effects are, however, moderated by prior experiences in risk-taking and role characteristics. Three distinct groups of 30 subjects (total?=?90) each were solicited to play an experimental betting game. The subjects were categorized into risk providers (RP), risk customers (RC), and non-risk customers (NRC). RP are represented by casino executives, RC by leisure life-time casino gamblers, and NRC by non-casino gamblers. On average, RC group was found to take most betting risk. Male RCs were more likely to bet more after a win, while female RCs were more likely to bet more after a loss. NRCs, irrespective of gender, were more likely to bet more after a loss. There were no gender risk-taking differences in prior outcomes in the RP group.     

Living in a foreign country: the meaning of place of origin and gender for risk perceptions,experiences, and behaviors

Abstract

Previous research has convincingly proven that perceptions, experience, and exposure to risks vary among certain groups in society. By drawing from a unique combination of Swedish survey data and interviews, this study aims to investigate perceptions and experiences of risks as well as in relation to behavior by analyzing the cleavages related to interactions between place of origin and gender. Theoretically, we see individual risk perception as part of situated hierarchical power relations where an individual’s position (which is an intersection of, for example, gender, race, age, and place of origin) structures action and thought. Findings verify that foreign-born men and women perceive risks to a greater extent than those born in Sweden. However, no direct pattern of ethnicity is apparent in exposure to risks, but since predictors measuring experience of discrimination are shown to be significant, the effect can be mediated by such circumstances. In terms of how risks have affected behavior, women, irrespective of their ethnicity, are affected. Exposure to tragic experiences among those who are foreign born can pose risks that are perceived to a greater extent. Furthermore, more vulnerable material conditions can also affect how risks are perceived, and uncertainty due to a lack of resources and as an inherent ingredient of living in a foreign country seem to enhance perceptions of risk and feelings of unsafety. Last, the sense of discrimination appears to influence exposure to certain risks, which might capture an interaction between racism and violence.     

The action suited to the word? Use of the framework of risk information seeking to understand risk-related behaviors

Although a growing body of risk communication research focuses on how people process risk information, one question that is overlooked is how the seeking of information contributes to behavioral adaptation toward the risk issue. How are people’s behavioral responses to risks affected by the search for risk information? Building on the Framework of Risk Information Seeking (FRIS), this paper reports on two studies that focus on the experimental testing of several of the basic FRIS assumptions. In study 1, a 2 (involvement: high vs. low)?×?2 (risk perception: high vs. low) between-subjects experiment was conducted to test the assumption that higher levels of involvement and risk perception stimulate the intention to seek additional risk information as well as the actual risk information. Study 2 is a partial replication of study 1. In study 2, a 2 (involvement: high vs. low)?×?2 (fear appeal: present vs. absent)?×?2 (response efficacy: high vs. low) between-subjects experiment was conducted to test how varying the levels of involvement, risk perception, and response efficacy influence actual and intended information seeking, as well as the intention to adopt risk-mitigating actions. The results showed that the high-involvement, high-risk perception, high-response efficacy group was most likely to actually seek information and make behavioral changes. The results are in accordance with basic FRIS assumptions. Implications for risk communication are discussed.     

Do Women Pay More for Mortgages?

This paper documents women on average pay more for mortgages than men. The disparity cannot be fully explained by traditional variables such as mortgage features, borrower characteristics, and market conditions. While the persistence of gender disparity may suggest discrimination, we offer a different explanation: women pay higher rates because they are more likely to choose lenders by recommendation while men tend to search for the lowest rate. Our empirical test confirms that search effort is rewarded in marketplace, and suggests that gender disparity in mortgage rates may be addressed by policies aimed at improving women’s financial literacy and search skills.     

Demographic determinants of incident experience and risk perception: do high-risk groups accurately perceive themselves as high-risk?

This paper analyzes demographic determinants of incident experience and risk perception, as well as the relationship between the two, for eight different risk domains. Analyses were conducted by merging the results of a Swedish population-based survey, which includes approximately 15,000 individuals, with demographic and socio-economic register data. Being male was associated with higher incident experience yet a lower risk perception for nearly all risk domains. Lower socioeconomic status was associated with higher incident experience for falls, and being a victim of violence but lower incident experience for road traffic accidents. Lower socioeconomic status was also associated with higher risk perception for falls. On aggregate, ranking the different domains, respondents’ risk perception was in almost perfect correspondence to the ranking of actual incident experience, with the exception that the risk of being a victim of violence is ranked higher than indicated by actual incident experience. On a demographic group level, men and highly educated respondents perceive their risks to be lower than what is expected considering their actual incident experience.     

Determinants of banks’ risk exposure to new account fraud – Evidence from Germany

This paper studies empirically the determinants of new account fraud risk within two dimensions: the probability of fraud, and the expected and unexpected (monetary) loss-per-account due to fraud. By fraud risk, we mean the risk that a bank fails to enforce a debt because the identity of the person incurring the debt cannot be ascertained. Using a unique and rich data set of account applicants, provided by a German Internet-only bank, we find that fraud risk is highly sensitive to demographic and socio-economic variables like nationality, gender, marital status, age, occupation, and urbanisation. For example, foreigners are 22.25 times more likely to commit account fraud than Germans, and men are 2.5 times more risky than women.     

Emotions,attitudes, and appraisal in the management of climate-related risks by fish farmers in Northern Thailand

Many previous studies have documented that farmers are risk-averse, while other studies have shown that farmers analyze and estimate risks. Conventional risk aversion measures and analytical judgment often do not fully explain decision behavior. Thus, it may be necessary to consider emotions. The objective of this study was to enhance understanding of the interactions between attitudes, analysis, and emotions in making risk decisions. The study used a mixture of methods, including: a tablet game, risk aversion scales, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions with fish cage farmers in Northern Thailand. There was no significant difference in risk aversion with respect to gender, age group, or region. Having sufficient capital made it possible to take more risks. Recently being impacted by floods or droughts, or being very concerned with climate change, was not associated with taking fewer risks. Measures of risk aversion did not predict risk decisions. Feeling worried, concerned, anxious, or stressed were the most common negative emotions referred to in interviews. Fear was a reason for not taking risks. Common positive emotions were joy, excitement, and feeling relaxed or relieved. Men who expressed feeling excited or thrilled chose riskier, higher stocking densities in games than women. A common belief was that men were quicker and more confident when making decisions. Another was that emotions had little impact on decisions, but were a response to success and failure – a claim inconsistent with other findings that imply emotions are also important prior to stocking decisions, and while waiting for the harvest. Fear and anxiety in the period prior to harvest may help motivate risk management practices, such as close monitoring and aeration. In conclusion, emotions may play a more important role in making decisions about climate-related risks than was previously recognized.     

Does knowledge of finance mitigate the gender difference in financial risk-aversion?

We investigate the gender difference in financial risk aversion using a survey of finance professors from universities across the United States. We compare their actual portfolio allocations to that of respondents in the Federal Reserve's Survey of Consumer Finances (SCF). We find that among highly educated individuals, women are significantly more risk averse than men. However, we find that when men and women have both attained a high level of financial education, they are equally likely to invest a significant portion of their portfolio in risky assets, suggesting that financial education mitigates the gender difference in financial risk aversion.     

Is the willingness to take risks contagious? A comparison of immigrants and native-born in the United States

A number of studies have shown that immigrants are more willing to take risks than native-born populations. In this paper, we measure if the willingness to take risks is contagious and if this effect is different for immigrants and native-born individuals in the United States. We suggest that the willingness to take risks may be contagious, like emotions and generosity, i.e. an individual may be more willing to take risks if others make risky decisions. We measure if contagion has a stronger effect on willingness to take risks among immigrants than native populations using a variety of vignettes, specifically in the domains of career, financial investment, and health. Respondents were randomly assigned either to a control or experimental condition. In the experimental condition, we attempted to induce risk-taking by suggesting that other individuals made risky decisions in the lottery-choice tasks (a ‘risk shift condition’). Contrary to expectations, the risk shift condition had a positive effect on willingness to take risks among native-born, while a negative effect or no effect was found among immigrants (conservative shift). Native-born found the situations more beneficial in the risk shift condition than in the control condition, while immigrants found them less beneficial in the risk shift condition. The conservative shift was found among immigrants, as well as males and self-employed. Risk shift condition reduced the sense of power among power-motivated individuals (males and immigrants), which produced a less optimistic evaluation of risky situations. While taking into consideration that others make risky decisions, immigrants and males perceived situations as less beneficial for them. The results of the experiment have some implications for our understanding of the link between a sense of power and the willingness to take risks.     

Are men better investors than women? Gender differences in mutual fund and pension investments

The majority of consumers lack awareness of how their financial situation will be when they retire. Women face a particularly severe situation. One reason is that reformed retirement systems are disadvantageous for women. Another reason is that women are much less interested to manage their money and to make long-term investments. This paper reviews prior studies on gender differences for financial consumers. Results are inconclusive and more research is needed to clarify when and why there are gender differences. This paper also analyses how the Swedish population has allocated their pension investments within the state pension system as well as the results from a nationally representative sample of consumers. There are less significant differences between expert men and women. Most differences are between novice men and women. Men are both more profit-oriented and more motivated to make financial investments than women are.     

The behavioral basis of policies fostering long-run transitions: Stakeholders,limited rationality and social context

Writings on sustainability transitions generally pay slight attention to the specific behavioral characteristics of individuals, groups and organizations. This paper examines how modern insights about bounded rationality, social interaction and learning can contribute to making transition polices more effective in addressing barriers and opportunities to realize a sustainability transition in the near future. We argue that the behavioral underpinnings of features like lock-in, surprises in innovation systems and network interactions have been insufficiently elaborated and connected to policy design. We identify and illustrate the most important behavioral features of relevant stakeholders in transition processes. By focusing on behavioral features at both individual and organizational levels, we arrive at recommendations for policy makers regarding important barriers to change and how to overcome these. Specific policy insights are offered at multiple levels, for different stakeholders, and associated with both behavioral biases and social interactions. The analysis combines insights from the literatures on sustainability transitions, “environmental–behavioral economics”, and behavioral foundations of learning and innovation. Our framework may serve as a basis for coherent behavior studies of transitions that otherwise run the risk of being ad hoc. This will improve conditional forecasting of system responses to transition policies.     

Sex role socialization and perceptions of student academic dishonesty by male and female accounting faculty

We examine differences between male and female accounting faculty members’ perceptions of academic dishonesty and their uses of controls to prevent academically dishonest behaviour. We use socialization concepts to motivate our examination of these differences. Specifically, we find that females generally perceive academic dishonesty to be a more significant problem than do males, females see individual incidences of academic dishonesty as more frequent and more significant than do males, and female academics report they exercise controls to prevent academic dishonesty more frequently than do male academics. These findings are consistent with differential sex role socialization for women and men. We also find that male and female accounting academics’ perceptions converge with professional training and teaching experience, suggesting moderating impacts of professional and/or organizational socialization on perceptions of academic dishonesty. Lastly, we document some differences in how male and female accounting academics respond to known incidences of academically dishonest behaviour.     

汉语拒绝言语行为的跨性别差异

跨性别拒绝言语行为是一个复杂的现象。旨在讨论在拒绝异性的请求、邀请和建议时,男性和女性所使用的不同拒绝模式;并通过问卷调查以及对调查结果进行的分析进一步论证,由于生理、心理、社会环境等因素,女性在实施拒绝言语行为方面要比男性委婉而礼貌;只有在拒绝异性所提供的帮助时,男性比女性更委婉。     

Ways women lead

Women managers are succeeding not by adopting the traditional command-and-control leadership style but by drawing on what is unique to their experience as women. According to a study the author conducted for the International Women's Forum, men and women in similar managerial jobs make the same amount of money and experience roughly the same degree of work-family conflict. But when they describe their leadership styles, vast differences arise. Men are much more likely than women to view leadership as a series of transactions with subordinates, and to use their position and control of resources to motivate their followers. Women, on the other hand, are far more likely than men to describe themselves as transforming subordinates' self-interest into concern for the whole organization and as using personal traits like charisma, work record, and interpersonal skills to motivate others. Women leaders practice what the author calls "interactive leadership"--trying to make every interaction with coworkers positive for all involved by encouraging participation, sharing power and information, making people feel important, and energizing them. In general, women have been expected to be supportive and cooperative, and they have not held long series of positions with formal authority. This may explain why women leaders today tend to be more interactive than men. But interactive leadership should not be linked directly to being female, since some men use that style and some women prefer the command-and-control style. Organizations that are open to leadership styles that play to individuals' strengths will increase their chances of surviving in a fast-changing environment.