Voluntary or mandatory training participation as a moderator in the relationship between goal orientations and transfer of training

Trainees can participate in organizational training programs voluntarily or mandatorily. To date, research has reported mixed evidence on the question whether voluntary or mandatory participation is associated with higher motivation and transfer of training. Grounded in the frameworks of participatory design, the notion of autonomy in basic psychological needs theory, and the 2 × 2 model of achievement goals, this meta‐analysis examined the relationship between goal orientations and transfer of training in contexts of voluntary and mandatory training participation with a sample of N = 4729 trainees in k = 29 studies. Goal orientations were conceptualized in four dimensions: mastery‐approach, mastery‐avoidance, performance‐approach, and performance‐avoidance. Results of the primary meta‐analysis indicated that mastery‐approach orientation had the most positive correlation with transfer of training, followed by performance‐approach, mastery‐avoidance and performance‐avoidance goal orientation. Meta‐analytic subgroup analysis examined the effects of two conditions for training participation: voluntary participation and mandatory participation. The findings indicated that training participation significantly moderated the correlation coefficients of mastery‐approach and performance‐avoidance goal orientation, with more positive estimates when training enrollment was voluntary. Contrary to expectations, the correlation coefficient between performance‐approach goal orientation and transfer of training was more positive when entry into training programs was obligatory and mandated. Implications for future research and the practice of training design and delivery are discussed.     

Italian translation of the questionnaire for professional training evaluation

This work illustrates the psychometric properties of the Italian version of the Questionnaire for Professional Training Evaluation, designed and validated by Grohmann and Kauffeld. This 12‐item questionnaire provides for the evaluation of different training outcomes, is time‐efficient, applicable to several professional contexts and shows sound psychometric properties. In order to test the Italian form, we carried out two studies. In Study 1 (N = 125), an exploratory factor analysis led to a two‐factor solution accounting for short‐ and long‐term training outcomes. In Study 2 (N = 122), a five‐model comparison was performed. Although at first a two‐factor solution seemed to emerge, confirmatory factor analysis found the best fit in a six, inter‐correlated, first‐order factors model (satisfaction, utility, knowledge, application to practice, individual organizational results and global organizational results). Relationships with learning transfer, transfer quantity, type of training, training methodologies and individual variables – gender, age and tenure – are explored. Limitations and research and practical implications are discussed.     

The use of the Persian translation of the Learning Transfer System Inventory in the context of agricultural sustainability learning in Iran

The Learning Transfer System Inventory considers 16 factors likely to influence the transfer of training to the workplace. This study uses the Persian translation of the inventory and applies it to agricultural sustainability learning in Iran. The aim is to examine the internal structure and predictive ability of the inventory as translated into Persian. The agricultural context was chosen because of its importance to Iran and because agricultural human resource interventions have failed to give serious attention to connecting training to practice. A valid and reliable tool for evaluating the transfer of learning among farmers can be helpful. A sample of 159 participating farmers was surveyed. Exploratory factor analysis revealed an 11‐factor structure among specific scales and a five‐factor structure among the general scales. The regression results indicated that about 82 per cent of the variability in the farmers’ sustainability learning transfer is predicted by six inventory factors including motivation to transfer, performance self‐efficacy, supervisor support, performance‐outcomes expectations, opportunity to use and supervisor sanctions. The findings suggest that the Persian translation of the inventory has both internal and predictive validity and can be used either as a tool to diagnose training needs or as a means of evaluating existing learning programs.     

Applying a Danish version of the Learning Transfer System Inventory and testing it for different types of education

The purpose of this study was to answer two research questions. First, will an exploratory factor analysis of a Danish version of the Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI) result in a factor structure which is consistent with the original American LTSI factor structure? Second, does the mean score in the factor analysis vary in a statistically significant way across different types of education, suggesting that the LTSI may be more suitable a measure in some educational contexts than others? To answer these questions survey data from 411 students following four different types of formal education – adult vocational training, academy profession programs, diploma programs and master's degree programs – were analysed. Principal component analysis was used to answer research question one. Factorial ANOVA was used to answer question two. The analysis resulted in fewer factors than in the original American LTSI. The study also found that the mean score differs in a statistically significant way between the different types of education. Specifically, LTSI may be more suitable in measuring transfer systems and therefore promoting transfer in relation to short courses offering training in specific skills than in relation to long‐term continuing education.     

The Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI) translated into French: internal structure and predictive validity

The Learning Transfer System Inventory (LTSI, Holton et al., 2000 ) considers 16 factors likely to influence the transfer of training to the workplace. The purpose of this study is to translate the Learning Transfer System Inventory into French and to examine (1) the internal structure of the translated instrument; and (2) its predictive validity. The Learning Transfer System Inventory was administered to 328 participants from six companies during the week following the end of a training program. The transfer questionnaire was filled in by 106 of those participants 1–3 months later. The results showed that a principal component analysis reveals a factor structure very similar to the original structure: the 16 original factors are replicated. Second, seven factors display statistically significant correlations with transfer: learner readiness, motivation to transfer, transfer design, opportunity to use, transfer‐performance expectations, performance‐outcomes expectations and performance self‐efficacy. Comparisons with four similar previous studies allow us to draw directions for future research on the instrument.     

Social support and motivation to transfer as predictors of training transfer: testing full and partial mediation using meta‐analytic structural equation modelling

Social support and motivation to transfer are important components in conceptual models on transfer of training. Previous research indicates that both support and motivation influence transfer. To date, however, it is not yet clear if social support influences transfer of training directly, or if this influence is mediated by motivation to transfer. Conceptually, some models assume that motivation to transfer fully mediates the influence of social support on transfer (full mediation models), whereas other models also include direct relationships between social support and transfer of training (partial mediation models). In addition, some models specify finer sub‐dimensions of social support, such as supervisor support, peer support, supervisor sanctions and feedback/coaching. What is the relative influence of these dimensions on the transfer of training? To what extent does motivation to transfer mediate the influence of different support dimensions and transfer? Aimed at answering these questions, the present meta‐analysis (k = 32 studies, N = 5487 participants) examined the relationships between social support, motivation to transfer and transfer of training. Social support was conceptualized in four dimensions: supervisor support, peer support, supervisor sanctions and feedback/coaching. Meta‐analytic structural equation modelling was used to test a partial mediation model and a full mediation model. Full mediation resulted in a better model fit. Peer support was the strongest predictor of motivation to transfer, and feedback/coaching was the strongest predictor of transfer of training. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings for developing conceptual models, measurement instruments and training interventions are discussed.     

An Investigation of Decision‐Making Styles of Consumers in China

This study investigates Chinese consumers' decision‐making styles. The Consumer Style Inventory (CSI) is administered to 387 adult consumers in China. Both an exploratory factor analysis and a confirmatory factor analysis are adopted to validate the CSI inventory. This results in an eighteen‐item and seven‐factor solution. Findings indicate that five decision‐making styles are valid and reliable in Chinese culture: perfectionistic, novelty‐fashion conscious, recreational, price conscious, and confused by overchoice. Cluster analysis is employed to identify prominent market segments. Based on the findings, three segments are formed: trendy and perfectionistic consumer, traditional and pragmatic consumer, as well as confused by overchoice consumer. Marketing and management implications are discussed.     

Improving salesforce performance: A meta‐analytic investigation of the effectiveness and utility of personnel selection procedures and training interventions

Research on the effectiveness in improving salesforce performance through personnel selection procedures and training interventions was examined by meta‐analytic techniques applied with 157 predictor‐criterion effect sizes involving selection procedures and 12 effect sizes involving training interventions. Significant effect sizes, on average, were obtained for (a) composite‐domain assessment against both subjective (ratings) and objective (sales performance) criteria, (b) single‐domain assessment against both criterion types, and (c) training interventions with respect to both criterion types combined. Significant variability was found among individual effect sizes within all categories of aggregation. Of the six specific categories of single‐domain assessment considered, five yielded significant validity for each of the two criterion types. Follow‐up utility analyses revealed improvements in sales productivity of from 14.8% to 34.1% for selection procedures and of 23.1% for training. Associated dollar‐based utility estimates indicated particularly substantial dollar gains for organizations employing composite‐domain selection with rigorous selection ratios, and lesser, but still substantial, gains from single‐domain selection with rigorous selection ratios, and from training interventions. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Practical Skills in International Business: Training Needs for Workforce Competence by Minnesota Companies

Companies doing business internationally face the competitive challenges of a constantly changing operational environment. Employees need to update their international knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA) frequently by attending training programs. A survey of Minnesota firms indicate that almost all companies are willing to cover the time and cost of employees attending such programs, apparently believing that workforce development benefits both day‐to‐day operations and improves employee morale. The current specialization in educational (K) and training (SA) programs by academic and nonacademic providers largely meets the needs of students and of corporate workforce development, but company competitiveness overseas could be enhanced if international K and SA providers cooperated more closely in complementary programming.     

Targeting Financial Management Training at Low‐Income Audiences

While interest in financial management training programs for low‐income persons has grown in recent years, the specific training needs of low‐income consumers have not been well articulated. This article describes needed training content for such audiences, based on review of previous research and the authors’ experiences in evaluating the Financial Links for Low‐Income People (FLLIP) program. We also illustrate how the choice of financial management training models can seriously impact the subgroups of the low‐income population who attend training, as well as the success of programs in recruiting and graduating participants. The implications of these findings both for financial management curriculum development and for the selection of program models are presented.     

Evaluating training programs: development and correlates of the Questionnaire for Professional Training Evaluation

Psychometrically sound evaluation measures are vital for examining the contribution of professional training to organizational success in a reliable manner. As training evaluations tend to be both time‐consuming and labor‐intensive, there is an increasing demand for economic evaluation inventories. Simultaneously, evaluation measures have to meet psychometric standards. The present paper develops a time‐efficient training evaluation questionnaire that (1) has psychometrically sound properties; (2) measures more than the participants’ reactions; and (3) is widely applicable across different training contents, thus allowing for comparisons of training programs within and between organizations. The Questionnaire for Professional Training Evaluation is primarily developed for use in practice but is also applicable to field research and covers short‐term as well as long‐term training outcomes. Analyses based on a total of n = 1134 employees show the stability of the factor structure and hint at the questionnaire's differential and discriminant validity. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Validation of Consumer Styles Inventory for consumer decision making styles

The Consumer Styles Inventory (CSI) developed by Sproles and Kendall, Journal of Consumer Affairs, 1986, 20: 267–279, is one of the most widely used instruments to classify consumers by their decision making styles. With changes in consumption culture attributable to the coexistence of global and local consumer culture in the past few decades, it is essential to reaffirm that the CSI measurement instrument is valid for contemporary consumers and can be applied in various contexts. This study, therefore, aimed to present a set of CSI validation procedures using contemporaneous participants and targeting two groups of participants in the United States. Two sets of exploratory factor analysis using the main data set (n = 390) were performed and confirmatory factor analysis was applied to the main data set and the cross-validation data set (n = 172). Results from both the exploratory factor and confirmatory factor analyses seem to validate the eight underlying consumer characteristics of CSI.     

A stakeholder‐based approach to leadership development training: the case of medical education in Canada

This paper reports the use of a stakeholder‐based, bottom‐up approach to determining leadership training needs and designing leadership training programs which contrasts with the top‐down policy that is often applied. The context is a Canadian medical school. Leadership training in medicine is in its infancy. Discussed and outlined in this study are stakeholder opinions on the pillars and priorities upholding leadership development. Seventy‐seven semi‐structured interviews were conducted with stakeholder groups including Trainees, Mid‐Level University Leaders, Senior Medical Clinician Leaders, Senior University Leaders, Medical Scientists and Senior Executives and Directors external to the University. Conventional content analysis was used to group the text into common themes and then group the themes into more general categories. Five general categories emerged: formal programming, organizational support, program evaluation, skill development and participant selection. A successful training program starts with identifying the individuals most likely to benefit from such a program. It emphasizes early training, mentorship and experiential learning. Programs should focus on developing: self‐awareness, communication skills and team‐building capability. Formal training programs would be most successful if they were regularly evaluated and strongly supported by their parent organizations.     

中国老年消费者购物决策风格的实证研究

本文首次将CSI量表用于测量中国老年消费者的购物决策风格。探索性因子分析与验证性因子分析发现,中国老年消费者具有四种购物决策风格,即品牌意识、娱乐享乐、眼花缭乱、追求完美的品质意识。ANOVA分析进一步揭示,中国老年消费者的购物决策风格因子在人口统计特征上具有统计显著性。     

A CLOSED‐FORM EXACT SOLUTION FOR PRICING VARIANCE SWAPS WITH STOCHASTIC VOLATILITY

In this paper, we present a highly efficient approach to price variance swaps with discrete sampling times. We have found a closed‐form exact solution for the partial differential equation (PDE) system based on the Heston's two‐factor stochastic volatility model embedded in the framework proposed by Little and Pant. In comparison with the previous approximation models based on the assumption of continuous sampling time, the current research of working out a closed‐form exact solution for variance swaps with discrete sampling times at least serves for two major purposes: (i) to verify the degree of validity of using a continuous‐sampling‐time approximation for variance swaps of relatively short sampling period; (ii) to demonstrate that significant errors can result from still adopting such an assumption for a variance swap with small sampling frequencies or long tenor. Other key features of our new solution approach include the following: (1) with the newly found analytic solution, all the hedging ratios of a variance swap can also be analytically derived; (2) numerical values can be very efficiently computed from the newly found analytic formula.     

Fostering enterprise architecture education and training with the enterprise architecture competence framework

Enterprise architecture (EA) implementation refers to a set of activities ultimately aiming to align business objectives with information technology infrastructure in an organization. EA implementation is a multidisciplinary, complicated and endless process, hence, calls for adequate education and training programs that will build highly skilled personnel (called enterprise architects) with diverse competencies. This development of domain‐specific competencies is also supported by European policies on education and vocational training. To this end, the authors present training uses of the Enterprise Architecture Competence Framework (EA‐CF). EA‐CF is a proposed conceptual model that describes EA competencies in compliance to the European e‐Competence Framework (e‐CF). The authors argue that EA stakeholders can consult the framework regarding competencies they want to underpin and thus identify the corresponding skills, knowledge and attitudes that result as learning outcomes in EA courses and training programs.     

Entrepreneurial Orientation versus Small Business Orientation: What Are Their Relationships to Firm Performance?

This study examines the constructs of entrepreneurial orientation (EO) versus small business orientation (SBO), their impact on small business performance, and whether these effects are moderated by longevity. A sample of 267 small business owners from 11 small–medium downtowns was used in structural equation modeling (SEM) testing of the measurement, structural and moderation hypotheses. The measurement confirmatory factor analyses models of the two constructs revealed that EO and SBO are unique constructs. Then a structural model predicting performance was tested. Finally, a two‐group model split on “below 11 years” versus “11+ years” demonstrated that the structural paths connecting EO and SBO to performance are not the same in these groups: for the younger group, only EO significantly predicts performance while for the older group, only SBO significantly predicts performance.     

The transfer of training: what really matters

Although organizations invest billions of dollars in training every year, many trained competencies reportedly fail to transfer to the workplace. Researchers have long examined the ‘transfer problem’, uncovering a wealth of information regarding the transfer of training. Inconsistencies remain, however, and organizations may find it difficult to pinpoint exactly which factors are most critical. Using Baldwin and Ford's model of transfer, we identify the factors relating to trainee characteristics (cognitive ability, self‐efficacy, motivation, perceived utility of training), training design (behavioral modeling, error management, realistic training environments) and the work environment (transfer climate, support, opportunity to perform, follow‐up) that have exhibited the strongest, most consistent relationships with the transfer of training. We describe our reasoning for extracting such variables from the literature and conclude by discussing potential implications for practice and future research.     

An Exploratory Study of the Otaku Adolescent Consumer

High accessibility to Internet technology and popularization of focus media has given rise to various emerging subcultures among the younger generation who constantly seek novelty. The otaku is such an adolescent subculture of avid collectors who have a special lifestyle and who are obsessed with anime products. This study explores this specific adolescent segment's traits and purchasing behavior patterns. A focus‐group interview was conducted with some adolescent otaku to allow them to express their opinions and purchasing behaviors. Then, a questionnaire was developed based on the interview's findings, and data from a survey of 105 respondents were collected. Exploratory factor analysis was applied to extract the otaku's trait factors, while confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling were used for the verification of the scale and structural model, respectively. The results show that the adolescent otaku present an obsessive preference for visual perception. The main factor influencing the otaku's purchasing intentions in terms of animation, comics, and games (ACG) is their strong interest in and participation willingness toward ACG. Strategic marketing directions applied to this adolescent group should emphasize information visualization to entice their buying behavior.