The U.S. allowance trading system for sulfur dioxide: An update on market experience

In 1990, the U.S. Congress passed legislation that amended the Clean Air Act to create a new program to mitigate the effects of acid deposition in the U.S. through emission reductions of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) at electric utility plants across the country. The SO₂ reductions, totalling a 40% reduction nationally from 1980 levels or a 10 million ton reduction annually, are achieved largely through an emission trading system, the largest program of its kind designed to date. This trading system has the potential to save up to half of the compliance costs associated with more traditional source-by-source emission limit programs.This paper briefly discusses background on the acid rain issue in the United States, and the principal features of the program, including: a permanent cap on utility emissions of SO₂ beginning in 2010, decision to grant up-front allocation of emission credits to reduce individual approvals of trades, the use of continuous emission monitors and automatic penalties to ensure compliance, and integration of the Acid Rain program requirements with other Clean Air Act programs. The paper also discusses the development of the allowance trading market to date, including the types of compliance options chosen and quantity and type of emissions trading being conducted.The U.S. Government right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

Implementing technology-forcing policies: The 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments and the introduction of advanced automotive emissions controls in the United States

Technology forcing is a strategy where a regulator specifies a standard that cannot be met with existing technology, or at least not at an acceptable cost. Using the 1970 U.S. Clean Air Act for controlling automobile emissions as a baseline example, we demonstrate the importance of the regulatory implementation process if regulations are to foster technological change. The 1970 legislation required steep emissions reductions for new 1975 and 1976 automobiles, which presented automakers with major technical and economic challenges. Nevertheless, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency successfully forced the adoption of two marquee control technologies—the catalytic converter in 1975 and the three-way catalyst in 1981. We focus on three factors critical to the implementation process: agency credibility to enforce standards, competitive pressures to drive industry research and development, and uncertainty about technological development.     

Controlling acid deposition: A general equilibrium assessment

In this paper, we evaluate the impact of the SO₂ provisions in the 1990 Clean Air Act. A computable general equilibrium (CGE) model of the United States is used to evaluate the implications of this law for a number of economic sectors. We find that the largest negative impact falls on the coal industry. Output in the refining sector also decreases, but agricultural production increases as consumers shift spending into food and wood based products.     

SO2 policy and input substitution under spatial monopoly

Following the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, electric utilities dramatically increased their utilization of low-sulfur coal from the Powder River Basin (PRB). Recent studies indicate that railroads hauling PRB coal exercise a substantial degree of market power and that relative price changes in the mining and transportation sectors were contributing factors to the observed pattern of input substitution. This paper asks the related question: To what extent does more stringent SO₂ policy stimulate input substitution from high-sulfur coal to low-sulfur coal when railroads hauling low-sulfur coal exercise spatial monopoly power? The question underpins the effectiveness of incentive-based environmental policies given the essential role of market performance in input, output, and abatement markets in determining the social cost of regulation. Our analysis indicates that environmental regulation leads to negligible input substitution effects when clean and dirty inputs are highly substitutable and the clean input market is mediated by a spatial monopolist.     

East–West European Integration: A General-Equilibrium Analysis of Alternative Agricultural Policies

This paper studies the budgetary and trade implications of European Union (EU) membership of Eastern European countries under various agricultural policy scenarios. The author uses a six-region, 13-sector general-equilibrium model with many explicitly modeled agricultural and trade policies. It is found that EU membership of Eastern European countries, including their adoption of the EU's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), leads to a surge in Eastern Europe's agricultural exports. Moreover, the EU's agricultural expenditure increases by 26%. A reform of the CAP following the Agenda 2000 proposal does not reduce the cost of enlargement if Eastern European farmers receive compensation payments.     

MULTIPOLLUTANT EFFICIENCY STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

This study contains a simulation of a coal-fired electric plant subject to multiple pollutant standards for SO₂ and NO _x . It shows that firms may not choose the lowest cost technology. The firm's cost-minimizing choice is compared for three increasingly stringent standards: the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments, the 1997 New Source Performance Standards, and the 2002 North Carolina Clean Smokestacks Act. The study finds support on cost-benefit grounds for the 2002 North Carolina standard, which is the most stringent standard, but not for the 1997 NSPS. (JEL Q28 , Q25 , L94 )     

European Agricultural Biotechnology Preferences and Policy: Growth and Trade Implications

European Union policies effectively prohibit the production and consumption of genetically modified agricultural products. This paper examines the prohibition's effects on research and development, innovation, trade flows, and economic growth using a Heckscher–Ohlin–Samuelson trade model with a neo‐ Schumpeterian approach. Restrictive European Union policies on biotechnology production and consumption result in: an effective export subsidy of capital to the South; changing trade flows; North America being the dominant producer of biotechnology research and development; the South being a dominant producer of biotechnology products; and the European Union being the dominant producer of traditional agricultural products.     

Agri-environmental policies in the EU and United States: A comparison

Agri-environmental policies (AEPs) in the United States and the European Union are examples of payments for environmental services that pay farmers to reduce the negative externalities of agricultural production, while serving as a means to transfer public funds to farmers. We show that despite similar origins, AEPs in the two regions differ both in their specific objectives and in their implementation. For example, AEPs in most member states of the EU-15 have the additional objective of using agriculture as a driver for rural development. This objective is achieved by compensating farmers for the private delivery of positive public goods, such as attractive landscapes, produced by agriculture. The rationale is market failure, and there is empirical evidence that Europeans are willing to pay for such positive externalities. No comparable provision exists in U.S. policy. By contrast, U.S. AEPs focus almost entirely on reducing agriculture's negative externalities, such as soil erosion. Second, we find that U.S. programs are more targeted than their EU counterparts, and take opportunity cost into account. The EU programs, on the other hand, address a wider range of externalities, and are focused more on the paying for a particular farming process than reducing specific negative externalities. The EU takes a broader view of AEPs than does the United States, both in terms of type of activity that can be funded, and by using less targeting by land characteristics, and so the European program could be more easily used as a mechanism for transferring income to producers. Despite this, we find evidence that many of the amenities targeted by the programs are demanded by the population.     

Trade liberalization in the presence of domestic regulations: public policies applied to EU and U.S. wine markets

Wine is the highest valued product in the agricultural, food, and beverage sector traded between the United States and the European Union (EU) and wine faces a range of tariffs that are differentiated by country and product category. In addition, the production of wine grapes is heavily regulated within the EU and there are complicated state-level policies in the United States designed to limit the retail availability of wine. There continues to be economic and political pressure for reform to the tariffs between the United States and the EU, and to the domestic regulations in each region. We carefully develop parameters to characterize the effects of tariffs and domestic regulations that affect production and consumption of wine in the two regions. Simulation results show that reductions in tariffs would have relatively small effects in EU and U.S. wine markets, whereas reductions in EU domestic policies that affect wine grape production would have much larger trade and welfare implications.     

The Eurozone Sovereign Debt Problem: What It Means for U.S. Exports

The European sovereign debt problem became the focus of world attention in 2010, when the interest rates on Greek government bonds rose dramatically, requiring immediate action by the European Union to avoid an imminent default. It has become clear that the problem is not limited to Greece, but a more general problem of the fundamental imbalances and underlying inconsistencies in the Eurozone economic system of using a single currency for a set of countries that lack a unified economic and political system. Financial markets reacted to the debt offering of the other deficit countries in the Eurozone by increasing interest rates on their sovereign debt as well. The major consequences are likely to be largely felt by the Eurozone countries themselves, some of whom will be forced to go through significant structural adjustments over the coming years. The adjustment process could generate a range of alternative macroeconomic outcomes for affected countries??including differences in growth, exchange rates, and investment??which could have significant implications for U.S. trade. This paper attempts to allay some of that uncertainty by exploring a wide range of alternative global macroeconomic outcomes and their potential impact on U.S. exports. The analysis extends the work done in a previous paper which focused on U.S. agricultural exports and its major components. While U.S. exports vary across the scenarios, continued strong economic growth in developing countries supports demand for U.S. exports. Because the EU has represented a declining share of U.S. exports, the direct impact of changes in European demand affects U.S. exports less than the secondary effects of changes in exchange rates and global investment patterns associated with alternative EU outcomes.     

面对中国市场经济地位问题：美国和欧盟的政策比较及启示

在今年若干国家正式承认了中国的市场经济地位的国际背景下,美国和欧盟却宣称暂时不给予中国市场经济地位。美国和欧盟作为中国的两大贸易伙伴,这样的外交辞令无疑会对其他与中国有贸易往来的国家产生导向作用,而这与中国目前积极争取获得市场经济地位的近期目标是相左的。针对美国和欧盟对中国市场经济地位的政策比较,进而分析两者的异同,谋求各个击破的方法并提出相应的政策建议,最终为中国争取全面获得市场经济地位做出努力。     

On the option to invest in pollution control under a regime of tradable emissions allowances

Abstract.  Optimal decisions of a firm facing the option of retrofitting its plant to reduce pollution and thereby eliminate the need to purchase emissions allowances are analysed. The decision is treated as a real option with the price of pollution permits following a known stochastic process. The model is formulated as a set of one‐dimensional partial differential equations. At discrete points in time, the firm owner makes optimal decisions about the retrofit, including whether to mothball temporarily. The model is used to analyse a firm's decision to instal a scrubber as a result of the 1990 U.S. Clean Air Act. JEL Classification: Q25, D81, G31
Sur la possibilité d'investir dans le contrôle de la pollution dans un régime de permis d'émission de pollution échangeables commercialement.  Ce mémoire examine les décisions optimales d'une entreprise face à la possibilité d'adapter ses installations pour réduire la pollution, et ce faisant d'éliminer le besoin de se procurer des permis d'émission de pollution sur le marché. Le décision est traitée comme une option réelle où le prix des permis résulte d'un processus stochastique connu. Le modèle est formulé sous forme d'un ensemble d'équations différentielles partielles à une dimension. A des points discontinus dans le temps, le propriétaire de l'entreprise prend des décisions optimales de mise à niveau des installations – y compris la possibilité de les fermer temporairement. Le modèle est utilisé pour analyser une décision d'installer un épurateur suite à la mise en place de la loi américaine de 1990 (Clean Air Act).     

THE ECONOMICS OF GASOHOL

Gasohol has received considerable governmental financial support because it is alleged to have important ecological and economic advantages. It is, for instance, supposed to reduce our extraction of nonrenewable energy, to have a cost advantage over gasoline, and to reduce pollution. This essay presents evidence that the amount of nonrenewable energy used in producing the corn ethanol is less than the amount of energy it provides as a fuel, that its price competitiveness with gasoline is doubtful, and that its environmental benefits are far from proven. In brief, current U.S. policies encouraging ethanol production to produce gasohol do not seem economically rational. ( JEL Q100, Q400, D210, L780)     

AVIATION DEREGULATION IN THE EUROPEAN UNION: DO ACTORS LEARN IN THE REGULATION GAME?

The United States has led the market liberalisation that has occurred over the past 15 years. Changes in the United States have not been trouble free. However, according to most impartial academic studies, changes in sectors such as aviation have generated net welfare gains. Other countries and industries liable to regulatory reform can learn from the United States. Governments have the scope to develop policies with fewer pitfalls, and industry can adopt strategies for retaining their market power. This paper looks specifically at how the aviation policymakers of the European Union have learned from the U.S. experience and how European airlines have equally adjusted their game.     

IS THERE PROGRESS IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY?

Environmental reformers often seek to impose partial, market-like mechanisms into costly, complex new environmental statutes. These mechanisms are likely to offset only a small fraction of the loss in economic welfare created by the rest of the legislation. A far better approach is to write cost-benefit requirements directly into all new legislation. Such requirements, when enforced by the courts, are likely to yield far greater improvements in economic welfare than are the weak market mechanisms found in new statutes such as the 1990 Clean Air Act.     

The effects of air quality regulations on the location decisions of pollution-intensive manufacturing plants

This research examines the effects of the 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA) on the location decisions of pollution-intensive manufacturing plants. We develop a panel data set to analyze plant births of polluting manufacturers over time as a function county-level attainment status of the federal standard for ozone pollution. We find that more stringent county-level environmental regulations impact pollution-intensive capital flows through deterring new plant births. We also find that the impact of stricter regulations varies by pollution-intensity of manufacturers, with results suggesting that federal guidelines have a greater impact on high pollution intensive manufacturers than more moderate polluters.      

Why did US air pollution decline after 1970?

US economic growth and air pollution were decoupled after 1970. Possible explanations include regulation, oil price shocks, technology and income growth. This paper uses VAR analysis to show that the 1970 Clean Air Act (CAA) may have actually increased pollution in the short run but led to accelerated improvements in abatement technology. Gross domestic product and consumption growth had little direct effect while oil price increases caused small but significant emissions reductions. Recursive simulation shows that overall, the CAA, by accelerating improvements in abatement technology, reduced total emissions as of 1998 to 46% of what they would have been.      

增强应对气候变化的能力：世界各国的战略选择

全球气候变暖是全人类共同面临的巨大挑战，维护气候安全是国际社会的共同目标。气候变化会导致自然灾害频发、经济下滑、农业减产以及气候移民等一系列问题。应对气候变化，发展低碳经济是现在时代的要求，也是全社会的责任。全球范围多发的自然灾害给人类经济生活到底会带来什么样的危害，已成为人们普遍关心的话题，无论是哪个国家和地区发生严重自然灾害都会引起国际社会强烈关注。为此，世界各国提出了自己未来的战略重点：日本提出了低碳社会行动的线路图，印度出台了一系列的国家行动计划，中国香港将重点放在建筑节能上，美国通过了《美国清洁能源安全法案》，欧盟大幅削减温室气体排放量。     

秸秆综合利用的生态价值及其经济补偿机制研究——以安徽为例

反思近年来我们对秸秆综合利用的研究发现,要实现秸秆综合利用的最终目标就必须在相应农业政策中健全农业生态环境补偿制度。《安徽省秸秆综合利用规划》和《安徽省新农村建设的金融支撑保障体系构建研究》项目研究借鉴欧盟等国家和地区实施农业生态补偿政策的经验,结合安徽省的实际,通过＂对秸秆综合利用生态价值的分析和经济补偿机制的研究＂的理论思考,探索在农村金融体系构建中,建立适合安徽省省情的秸秆综合利用补偿机制的框架体系,以破除农业生态环境保护困境的根本目的。     

Risk attitudes and premiums of U.S. corn and soybean producers: an empirical investigation

The 2000 Agricultural Risk Protection Act and 2002 Farm Security and Rural Investment Act reduced price and yield risks faced by many U.S. crop producers to low levels. We use a non-structural methodology extended for application to pseudo panels and national survey data to examine the risk attitudes of U.S. corn and soybean producers to test whether, and examine how, risk attitudes varied during the 1996–2001 and 2002–2008 periods by revenue category. We cannot reject the hypothesis of risk neutrality for the entire population, and for each revenue category, for the former period, but can reject risk neutrality, in favor of risk tolerance, for the entire population and for the larger revenue categories for the latter period. Estimated risk premiums for the latter period suggest that U.S. corn and soybean farmers who earn more require larger payments to remain indifferent between receiving their expected income with certainty and receiving an uncertain income from farming and government programs.