How to give and receive: An exploratory study of charitable hybrids

Most charitable organizations can only rely on appeals to purely philanthropic motivations in attempting to solicit donor contributions. The decision processes exhibited by the targets of charitable solicitations are very different from those the same individuals use in making daily purchase decisions. Although both charitable giving and purchase contexts have been studied extensively, there are numerous organizations that require targeted customers to use a decision process that merges elements of both domains. Charitable hybrids, such as museums and universities, are such organizations, supplementing traditional revenue streams by soliciting charitable contributions, thus evoking a complex consumer decision process. For these firms, giving good service may yield an added benefit of maximizing charitable contributions received. Drawing on both the services and charitable giving literatures, a model of the consumer decision process is developed in this hybrid situation. In an exploratory test of the model, initial evidence is found that both classes of effects have significant influence on donors' intentions to give. However, in charitable giving contexts, organizational identification appears to fill a central role in influencing decision outcomes, which diminishes the role of satisfaction. The findings provide provocative evidence that further research in this setting is warranted. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Hoping to Enhance a Local Funding Relationship: Exploring Private Sector Business Preferences When Contributing to Nonprofit Organizations

ABSTRACT

Nonprofit organizations want relationships with private sector businesses because nonprofits rely on fundraising to generate income, a portion of which is provided through the charitable giving of the private sector. Who the private sector contributes to, why they give, and what variables positively influence more giving, are all questions nonprofit organizations continuously want answers to. The answers though are often arbitrary, reflecting subjective criteria based on individual business preferences, the economic status of the marketplace, the community context, and the credibility of the nonprofit program. Because the relationship is dynamic and the answers may continue to change, nonprofits must continue to ask.

This article discusses an exploratory effort to identify the funding attitudes and behaviors of private sector businesses who contribute to their local nonprofit organizations.

The results showed the majority of private sector businesses who responded said they support their local nonprofits primarily with cash contributions, and identified altruism as a key motivation for giving. Results also revealed that their funding choices are somewhat arbitrary with little formalized process for decision-making. Dollars are contributed primarily by direction of individual managers or owners who prefer informal relationships with their local nonprofit organizations, but expect funding requests to clearly explain how the dollars will be used. The findings, although limited, provide results that further examine this complex relationship, and perhaps provide insight into how the relationship could be enhanced for the ultimate benefit of both organizations' needs.     

Dangerous Donations? The Effects of Cause-Related Marketing on Charity Attitude

SUMMARY

How might cause-related marketing affect attitudes toward the charity involved? Could charity attitudes be harmed? These questions were addressed in a controlled laboratory study. Positive/negative fit between the organizations was manipulated, and company attitude was measured. The results suggest that charity attitude may be negatively impacted if consumers' attitudes toward the company are negative, or if the organizations have negative fit. Alternatively, CRM may improve charity attitude if company attitude is positive or the organizations share positive fit. The effect of fit is stronger than the effect of company attitude, so positive fit may compensate for pairing with a company toward which consumers' attitudes are negative.     

Encouraging Consumer Charitable Behavior: The Impact of Charitable Motivations,Gratitude, and Materialism

The United States is one of the most charitable nations, yet comprises some of the most materialistic citizens in the world. Interestingly, little is known about how the consumer trait of materialism, as well as the opposing moral trait of gratitude, influences charitable giving. We address this gap in the literature by theorizing and empirically testing that the effects of these consumer traits on charitable behavior can be explained by diverse motivations. We discuss the theoretical implications, along with implications for charitable organizations, and offer suggestions for future research.     

The New Face of Philanthropy: The Role of Intrinsic Motivation in Millennials’ Attitudes and Intent to Donate to Charitable Organizations

Nonprofits must gain millennials as lifelong donors for future sustainability. The current study aims to analyze the millennials and their intrinsic motivation (Deci et al., 1994), attitudes toward helping others, attitudes toward charitable organizations (Webb et al., 2000), and millennials intent to donate (Bearden et al., 1984) to these organizations. Results indicate that intrinsic motivation is moderately and positively related to attitudes toward helping others. Attitudes toward charitable organizations is moderately strong and positively related to intent to donate. Suggestions toward engaging and motivating millennials include volunteer work that is interesting, enjoyable and valuable to millennials. This study supports previous research on millennials while providing new avenues to engage them such as technology-based solicitations, generational comparative analysis, and intracohort analysis. The implications of this study suggest innovative ways of fundraising such as crowdfunding and social alliances that not-for-profits can tap into to motivate millennials to donate their time and money to their causes.     

The Effects of Employee Attitudes on Workplace Charitable Donations

ABSTRACT

The objectives of this paper are to examine the effects of employee attitudes toward the employer on workplace monetary donations at two levels: (1) to see if there is a significant difference between the attitudes of employees who make workplace contributions and those who do not; and (2) to examine whether awareness of employer charitable contributions moderate the relationship between employee attitudes and donating behavior. Employee attitudes include organizational commitment and job satisfaction. The research questions are examined in the context of workplace contributions made to a regional branch of United Way. The results indicate that organizational commitment scores exhibited by employees who made workplace contributions, and who were aware that their employer was also making corporate donations were significantly higher than the commitment for employees who did not make workplace contributions. No significant relationships were found for job satisfaction.     

Charitable Donations as Social Exchange or Agapic Action on the Internet: The Case of Hungersite.com

SUMMARY

Donations to charity have long been of interest to marketing academics seeking to understand the relationships between nonprofit organizations and their customers. A key area of concern is that of motivation-why do individuals donate time, money and other resources to charities in general or to particular charities? While marketers in particular, and social scientists in general, have explained donation and gift giving in terms of the exchange paradigm, more recently consumer researchers have introduced the notion of agapic (or unselfish) behavior to explain some aspects of gift giving. Using the case of a successful charitable Internet site, Hungersite.com, this paper attempts to contrast the exchange and agapic paradigms of donation behavior, with the re sulting strategic implications this may have for charity marketing strategy.     

Charitable donations by the self-employed

This article analyzes an important aspect of the social behavior of the self-employed in America. We ask whether the self-employed express their social responsibility to society by giving more to charity than the general population, and if so which charitable causes they give to. We use social identity theory to generate hypotheses about the determinants and objectives of charitable giving among members of this socially and economically important group. Testing these hypotheses with nationally representative, longitudinal US data, we find that the American self-employed are indeed more likely to exhibit social responsibility toward their community by giving to charities than the general population. While the self-employed support broadly similar charities to the general population, they give substantially more to organizations which: address issues in the local community; provide health care; and serve the needy. We trace out implications of our findings for scholars, practitioners, and policy-makers.     

The Grape Escape–A FUNdraising Bike Tour for the Multiple Sclerosis Society

ABSTRACT

As the fundraising climate for nonprofit organizations becomes increasingly competitive for the public's attention and charitable giving, social marketing research can help to gather information for mutual benefit. This paper describes a study that evaluated a weekend cycling fundraising event for the Multiple Sclerosis Society to better understand participants' experiences and improve the event. Data were collected via questionnaires (n = 78) revealing perceptions of the benefits and costs of participation, as well as cyclists' ratings of self and external efficacy. Telephone interviews (n = 25) captured participants' reactions to the event's marketing materials and communication strategies. Implications for improving the event to maximize benefits and reduce costs, enhance its marketing, recruit future and retain existing participants and positioning the event are offered.     

Citizen Preferences for the Corporate Sponsorship of Public-Sector Park and Recreation Organizations

ABSTRACT

Corporate sponsorship of public-sector organizations is becoming more commonplace. However, few studies have examined citizen attitudes toward sponsorship of public-sector organizations. Using parks and recreation as the study context, this research assessed general citizen support for corporate sponsorship as well as preferences for specific sponsorship promotional activities and contractual conditions. Given that previous research has linked sponsorship attitudes to individual and contextual factors, relationships between socio-demographic, park use characteristics, and sponsorship support were also examined. A mail survey of 578 citizens in the Harrisburg-Lebanon-Carlisle, Pennsylvania MSA indicated that a majority supported corporate sponsorship of park and recreation agencies. Sponsorships by local businesses and sponsorships that provided free products received the most favorable evaluations. Sponsorships involving naming rights, exclusivity, and user fees were evaluated least favorably. However, older adults, minority citizens, and park users were less likely to favor a number of specific sponsorship activities and conditions. Implications for sponsorship program design and future citizen-based research are discussed.     

The influence of gender,social cause,charitable support,and message appeal on Gen Y's responses to cause-related marketing

Abstract

This study examined the influence of gender, type of social cause, amount of charitable support, and message appeal on Gen Y consumers' attitudes and purchase intentions towards an apparel brand within the context of cause-related marketing. A questionnaire, with an experimental design component, was administered to a sample of 562 Gen Y college students. Results suggest that Gen Y consumers are more likely to form positive attitudes towards an apparel brand when the amount of the charitable support is clearly communicated. Gender did not influence attitude towards brand, but did predict purchase intentions. Attitude towards brand, subjective norm, evaluation of the advertisement, and involvement in social causes were strong predictors of purchase intentions. When developing CRM initiatives, marketers should consider Gen Y's involvement in a social cause (e.g. volunteerism) rather than their stated interest in the given cause, and they would be well advised to state precisely (in advertisements) the amount of monetary contribution made to charitable causes.     

Older adults' motivations for gift giving to charitable organizations: An exchange theory perspective

Although corporate contributions to charity have been the subject of much discussion and research, little attention and research has been devoted to understanding charitable gift-giving behavior of individuals. Using exchange theory, we provide explanations for gift-giving behavior of older adults. A model is developed and tested using LISREL. The results suggest that social interaction and control motivations are important predictors of gift-giving behavior. Contrary to expectation, esteem enhancement motivations were negatively related to charitable gift giving. These results provide partial support for an exchange-theory-based explanation of older adults' gift-giving behavior. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Mapping the imaginary of charitable giving

The meaningfulness of charitable giving is largely owed to the imaginary conceptions that underpin this form of giving. Building on Taylor's notion of “social imaginary” and Godelier's work on “gift imaginary,” we theorize the imaginary of charitable giving. Through a combination of qualitative methods the charitable gift imaginary and its role in givers' meaning making are explored in a specific socio-cultural context. The theoretical foundation and the generated data enable us to map the imaginary of charitable giving across four distinct clusters and theorize meaning – making as navigation across relatively stable assemblages of conceptions of poverty, donors, end-recipients and charitable giving. These assemblages are suggested to form a multifaceted imaginary that is both cultural (shared) and personal (individually performed).     

A Cross-Cultural Study of Consumer Attitudes Toward Time

Abstract

Since consumer behavior can be considered an activity that occupies time and attitudes toward time and its value differ across cultures, then differences in attitudes toward time may prove to be a meaningful way to segment markets. This study investigates differences in American and Mexican consumers' attitudes toward time. After a brief review of the literature relating to the role of time in consumer behavior, a cross-cultural study of consumer attitudes towards time is described and analyzed. Implications for adapting marketing messages based on culturally-based attitudes toward time are then discussed.     

Not All Empathy Is Equal: How Dispositional Empathy Affects Charitable Giving

Motivations for prosocial behavior have been explored in diverse ways. Empirical research suggests that empathy is an important motive for prosocial behavior. Building upon previous studies, in this article the authors hypothesize that charitable giving is distinctively affected by different components of dispositional empathy, including empathic concern, perspective taking, and personal distress. Using the 2008–2009 wave of American National Election Studies data set, this study examines the impact of these three components of dispositional empathy on probability and amount of giving to various charitable causes. The results support the authors’ hypotheses that the three components of dispositional empathy are associated with charitable giving in different ways. In particular, empathic concern consistently stimulates the likelihood and amount of giving. The effects of perspective taking and personal distress are mixed. The results offer several direct implications for fundraisers and nonprofit organizations in crafting effective fundraising appeals.     

The CEO's Influence on Corporate Foundation Giving

Some scholars have argued that CEOs may have excessive influence on their foundation's trustees to give away a portion of company profits to charitable causes in order to gain access to elite circles or support the CEO's personal causes. This may result in charitable contributions that ultimately serve the personal interests of the CEOs without regard to corporate interests or social needs. We examine the extent that CEOs appear to direct charitable giving to be compatible with their own personal interests, and if CEO participation on the foundation board affects the relationship between CEO personal interests and charitable giving. Using a sample of 160 corporate foundations, our results showed that CEOs' interests, as measured by membership in different non-profit organizations, was associated with foundation charitable giving. This association decreased, but was not eliminated, when CEOs were absent from the foundation board. Implications of these findings for researchers and managers are discussed in regards to both agency theory and stewardship theory.     

Normative Influences in Donation Decisions

ABSTRACT

The author examines the role of social and personal moral norms within a charitable giving decision process. Social and moral norms are posited both to directly and indirectly influence charitable-giving decisions. The study confirms the presence of idealistic and egotistic dimensions of moral norms within a charitable-request environment. Post-charitable contribution guilt was also found to be present in both donors and nondonors for markedly irregular charitable-giving encounters, with nondonors experiencing significantly higher guilt. The study explores the theoretical and practical implications of these findings for nonprofit marketers.     

Consumers' attitudes and intentions toward Internet-enabled TV shopping

An increasing number of households are equipped with Internet-enabled televisions (IETVs) that yield opportunities for online activities. This research contributes by investigating the motivational factors of consumers’ attitudes and intentions toward IETV shopping. A quasi-experimental study in the environmental context of a living room was designed to explore IETV shopping behavior. Findings indicate that utilitarian motivations are determined by characteristics of technology and hedonic motivations from the physical environment. Attitudes toward IETV shopping are primarily influenced by hedonic shopping motivations. Conclusions suggest that by providing an IETV shopping app, retailers would make online shopping more enjoyable and comfortable for consumers.     

Does Vice Make Nice? The Viability and Virtuousness of Charity Lotteries

ABSTRACT

Globally, charities are under increasing pressure to find alternative sources of funding. Although charitable gaming has long been considered a viable source of revenue for charities, opponents of gaming have raised concerns about the potential negative consequences associated with gambling. The current paper examines a unique form of charity gaming–the charity super lottery (CSL)–that offers a number of fund-raising benefits to cash-strapped charities. Results from a preliminary study of CSL ticket buyers suggest that the CSL may be both a virtuous and viable source of fundraising. Interviews revealed that CSL consumers (1) viewed the ticket purchase as a donation rather than gambling, (2) were unlikely to be involved in other forms of gambling, and finally (3) perceived the CSL purchase as a complementary rather than supplementary form of charity support behavior. Implications for the fundraisers of charitable organizations and directions for future research are discussed.     

Service quality and blood donors — a marketing perspective

The National Blood Service, celebrating their fast half century, have responded to the increasing need for blood with the launch of their biggest recruitment drive ever, targeted at young adults with the goal of encouraging a life‐time habit of giving blood. Prerequisites for improving the effectiveness of donor acquisition and retention strategies are to understand who gives blood, the motivations for giving and for defection as well as the reasons why the majority of eligible donors do not donate. A literature review of blood donor characteristics and motivations sets the contextual background to the field study of some 240 students at a British University and a conceptual model which depicts the behavioural chain of blood donorship is drawn. The implications for donor acquisition, retention and defection management are then outlined. Service quality, solicitation of donor's views and communication strategies are discussed and we conclude with proposals for further research.