价格歧视理论研究综述

价格歧视理论是现代产业组织理论研究的热点之一。通过对相关理论研究文献的回顾,分析了价格歧视对社会福利、产业利润的影响,探讨了产生价格歧视的原因及其与市场进入之间的关系,同时重点考察了惠卖定价策略和多产品竞争条件下的价格差异现象,以期为处理相关价格歧视问题提供理论依据。     

A Welfare Evaluation of History-Based Price Discrimination

We design an asymmetric duopoly model with inherited market dominance such that the dominant firm and the smaller firm can price discriminate based on consumers’ purchase history. We show that uniform pricing softens competition leading to higher industry profits than under history-based pricing. Consumers benefit from history-based price discrimination unless the switching cost is sufficiently high and the inherited degree of dominance is sufficiently weak. A ban on history-based pricing would typically introduce a distributional conflict between consumers and producers. Finally, we establish that the gains to industry profits associated with uniform pricing exceed the associated losses to consumers.     

价格歧视理论对我国电影消费市场的适用性

一、价格歧视理论及其扩大市场需求的作用 近些年来,我国的电影票房收人大幅下降,这虽与电视、多媒体电脑、VCD等各种电影的替代品产生有关,但更主要的原因是作为奢侈消费的电影票价不断上涨,抬高了人们迈进影院的门槛.从经济学角度看,电影是富有需求弹性(E》1)的商品,收入和价格成反方向变化,随着票价的越提越高,票房收入必然越来越少.在市场经济中,一种商品的均衡价格由供求相等形成,但也受到其相关商品价格、消费者的收入及偏好、生产者的成本及技术的影响.作为商品供给者的企业应随时考虑以上各因素的变化,不断调整商品的价格,以保证自己获得利润最大化;作为政府主管部门也不应该人为地管制一个垄断高价,造成商品过剩或短缺.     

Price Discrimination by Coupons Restriction

In this paper we show how the use of a restricted number of coupons in the presence of different types of customers is an effective means of implementing a price discriminating policy. Hence, firm profits can be increased even when traditional price discrimination is forbidden.     

论电子商务市场中的"价格歧视"

本文分析了电子商务市场上价格歧视的形式与内容 ,并运用信息经济学的方法分析了电子商务市场中价格歧视的实施障碍、形成原因及所造成的后果 ,最后提出了解决此问题的对策建议。     

Price Discrimination with One-way Separated Markets

This paper extends the traditional model of third degree price discrimination which assumes complete separation between markets to the case where markets are only one-way separated. In two periods of time one can carry over quantities of the product from the present to the future but not vice versa. We show that this model provides a wide framework for analysis of several promotional marketing strategies.     

Selective Price Cuts and Price Discrimination Bans in Network Industries

In order to encourage competition in network-based industries such as telecommunications, some jurisdictions have adopted regulatory rules which prevent the incumbent service provider from selectively cutting prices in response to market entry. Given such bans on price discrimination, the incumbent cannot react to competition by selectively adjusting prices, based on the competitive situation in a given market, but has to maintain the same price across all markets. This paper analyses the welfare effects of such a rule for both one-way networks (access model) and two-way networks (interconnection model) when consumers have switching costs. We find that, even though bans on price discrimination can induce inefficient entry for a range of parameter constellations, there are also cases where they induce efficient market entry. This is the more likely to be the case the higher the fixed costs of entry.     

Statistical Inference Using Stochastic Switching Models for the Discrimination of Unobserved Display Promotion from POS Data

The execution of price and/or display promotion has a significant effect on the sales of a brand sold in a supermarket. Information on price and/or sales is available from POS data. However, unless an investigator collects information on the execution of display promotions from every retail store, such information is unavailable. This paper presents a method of identifying whether display promotion has been executed without having to visit individual stores. We treat the execution/non-execution of a display promotion as a state variable. An unknown stationary probability matrix is assumed to describe the probability of a transition between states. Each state is characterized by a different stationary time series model with unknown parameters. The objective of the analysis is to identify the model and to assign a probability model for each state at each time instant. Finally, we provide a high precision estimator of a past execution/non-execution of a display promotion based on the proposed model.     

Expectations and Attitudes Toward Gender-Based Price Discrimination

This study explores consumer expectations and attitudes related to gender-based price discrimination. Although much research has focused on pay inequalities and gender diversity, considerably less attention has been focused on situations in which men and women are charged different prices based on gender. In two studies, expectations and attitudes toward gender-based price discrimination are examined. In Study 1, two scenarios related to prices at hair salon and dry cleaning services were manipulated to measure expectations and attitudes toward gender-based price discrimination. We found that the nature of the service results in expectations of price differences between men and women. We also found men expect gender-based pricing more than women. In Study 2, qualitative research was conducted to reveal the cognitions that men and women experience when exposed to gender-based price discrimination.     

价格歧视行为的反垄断法规制研究

价格歧视是指经营者在提供相同商品或服务时不合理地实施差别价格的行为.基于对垄断行为复杂性的认识,借鉴世界上其他国家经验,我国反垄断法确定了对垄断行为进行合理分析的原则,以判断经营者实施的行为是否属于反垄断规制中的垄断行为,进而明确该行为是否具有排除、限制市场竞争效果.我国反垄断法的很多规范都不是对一种行为作简单的“是”“非”判断,而是进行理性的效果分析.合理原则充分体现了反垄断法的复杂性和灵活性.因此,在反价格垄断执法过程中,要坚持合理分析原则,对经营者实施的某项具体行为不能简单地判定其是否构成价格垄断行为,要综合考虑其他因素,最终确定是否应当对其进行反垄断规制.     

Online Price Discrimination and EU Data Privacy Law

Online shops could offer each website customer a different price. Such personalized pricing can lead to advanced forms of price discrimination based on individual characteristics of consumers, which may be provided, obtained, or assumed. An online shop can recognize customers, for instance through cookies, and categorize them as price-sensitive or price-insensitive. Subsequently, it can charge (presumed) price-insensitive people higher prices. This paper explores personalized pricing from a legal and an economic perspective. From an economic perspective, there are valid arguments in favour of price discrimination, but its effect on total consumer welfare is ambiguous. Irrespectively, many people regard personalized pricing as unfair or manipulative. The paper analyses how this dislike of personalized pricing may be linked to economic analysis and to other norms or values. Next, the paper examines whether European data protection law applies to personalized pricing. Data protection law applies if personal data are processed, and this paper argues that that is generally the case when prices are personalized. Data protection law requires companies to be transparent about the purpose of personal data processing, which implies that they must inform customers if they personalize prices. Subsequently, consumers have to give consent. If enforced, data protection law could thereby play a significant role in mitigating any adverse effects of personalized pricing. It could help to unearth how prevalent personalized pricing is and how people respond to transparency about it.     

推进零售商业理论创新 促进零售市场健康发展

随着改革开放的深化 ,逐步改变了我国对零售商业的认识 ,总结零售经营经验 ,深化理性认识 ,已成为流通领域理论研究的热点和重点。借鉴国外的先进经验 ,结合国情 ,推进零售业理论创新 ,研究中国商业发展的模式、结构和规模 ,保证商业设施、网点建设的投入 ,促进零售市场健康发展。     

A Multiple-discrete/Continuous Model of Price Promotion

Understanding the effect of temporary price reductions, or price promotions, on sales of consumer packaged goods is an area of ongoing interest, both in academia and in practice. Price promotions, however, are becoming an increasingly important method of managing consumer demand for fresh produce items. Modeling the impact of price promotions must take into account the differentiated nature of fresh produce and the fact that consumers tend to purchase multiple items of only a few of the products available to them. Neither a continuous nor a discrete model of demand is appropriate. In this paper, we apply a multiple-discrete/continuous model of fresh produce demand to study the impact of price promotion on retail apple sales. Our findings show that the brand switching/category incidence effect of promotion is closer to 65/35 than the more usual 80/20 rule (80 percent of the effect is brand switching and 20 percent purchase incidence) when the nature of the decision is appropriately taken into consideration.     

网络营销中价格歧视的利与弊

本文认为,网络营销中的个人化定价、版本划分和群体定价是价格歧视的三种表现形式.与实物市场相比,网络营销具有实行价格歧视的更强能力和优势,但由于信息的非对称性,在网络营销中实施价格歧视策略也会产生不利后果,会使用户失去最基本的价格支配能力,引起更多的利益由买方转移到卖方,会导致消费者更严重的逆向选择.文章提出,要建立合理的网络营销战略,一方面要利用声誉途径避免价格歧视的弊端;另一方面要实施网络忠诚战略,提升顾客的忠诚度,保证企业的可持续发展.     

Subjective Performance Evaluation and Gender Discrimination

Gender discrimination continues to be a problem in organizations. It is therefore important that organizations use performance evaluation methods that ensure equal opportunities for men and women. This article reports the results of an experiment to investigate whether and, if so, how the gender of the rater and that of the ratee moderate the relationship between the level of subjectivity in performance appraisals and organizational attractiveness. Participants in the experiment were 313 undergraduate students. We predicted, and indeed established, that as the probability increases that employee performance is evaluated by a female manager, women expect more positive outcomes of subjective, but not objective evaluation processes. Our data did not support our expectation that as the probability of being evaluated by a female manager increases, men expect less positive outcomes of subjective evaluation processes. The findings of this study contribute to our understanding of why women are over-represented in jobs with objective formula-based reward systems, such as piece-rate systems. They are also of interest to organizations that are looking for more ethical human resource management practices.     

价格歧视定义的经济学认知和规范

价格歧视是经济学中的一个重要名词,但定义令人不满意,通过对现有定义的综述,摒弃完全垄断市场结构和完全垄断厂商分析框架,比较归纳价格歧视产品的范围,打破了采取价格歧视一定产生好结果的观念.从市场结构、实施主体、价格歧视媒介、实施效果等方面分析价格歧视后,对其定义给予补充.     

Third-Degree Price Discrimination, Consumption Externalities, and Market Opening

This study investigates the effects of monopolistic third-degree price discrimination on market opening in the presence of consumption externalities between separate markets. Assuming symmetric interdependent linear demands and constant marginal cost, we indicate the possibility that with negative externalities a monopolist can do better by closing the relatively small market from the social welfare viewpoint, while it prefers opening that market if price discrimination is feasible. This result contradicts the previous literature on third-degree price discrimination and market opening which asserts that, in the case of non-increasing marginal cost, price discrimination improves social welfare if it opens new markets that are closed under uniform pricing.     

Third-Degree Price Discrimination in the Presence of Asymmetric Consumption Externalities

In this paper, we consider third-degree price discrimination in two markets in the presence of asymmetric consumption externalities; we establish that under plausible conditions, a firm reduces its price in the market with low price elasticity of demand. The firm can increase its profits by reducing the price for these consumers and enlarging the demand for other consumers, provided that positive consumption externalities exist. Moreover, we show that third-degree price discrimination enhances not only the firm’s profit but also total consumer surplus.

An Analysis of Price Discrimination in Brand Name Drug Wholesaling

Accounting measures of profitability are viewed by the academic literature with skepticism, perhaps even disdain. Accounting information and accounting rates of return are, however, relied upon extensively by market participants to compare and contrast the economic performance of alternative investments, alternative companies and alternative industries, at a single point in time and over time. We believe that accounting information and accounting measures of profitability can be useful under specific conditions. We agree that important concerns do arise about the appropriateness of accounting measures for certain analyses. However, one can take these concerns too far. We describe one such situation – one involving an antitrust complaint of price discrimination in a particular network industry – wholesaling in pharmaceutical product markets.