The Rules for Foreign Investment in NAFTA

Abstract

The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) produced a new set of rules for foreign direct investment (FDI). These applied the principle of national treatment, with the exception of a set of explicitly excluded sectors such as energy and automobiles. NAFTA also increased transparency and applied dispute settlement provisions for FDI disputes. The improved, rules-based climate for FDI can help increase FDI in NAFTA and stimulate growth and competitiveness. The rules for FDI in NAFTA can also serve as a model for other agreements such as the OECD's multilateral agreement on investment and the emerging investment liberalization of APEC.

El tratado de libre comercio (TLC) de America del Norte produjo un nuevo conjunto de reglas para la inversión directa extranjera (IDE) en la region. En particular, en esta nueva regulación se da el tratamiento de nacional a la IDE con la excepcion de algunos sectores como la energia y los automobiles. Adicionalmente, el TLC mejoro la transparencia y los mecanismos de negociacion para la resolucion de disputas y diferencias en materia de inversión directa extranjera. Con esta nueva regulación, tambien se puede esperar un incremento en la IDE y un nuevo crecimiento y competitividad en toda la region del TLC. La nueva regulación del TLC en America del Norte, puede servir como modelo para otros acuerdos como los de inversion multilateral de la OECD y los de liberalizacion de la inversion de la APEC.

O Acordo de Livre Comércio Norte-Americano (NAFTA) produziu um novo conjunto de regras para o investimento direto estrangeiro (IDE). Essas regras aplicaram o principio do tratamento nacional, com a exceção de um conjunto de setores explicitamente excluídos tais como os setores de energia e automobilistico. O NAFTA também aumentou a transparência and aplicou provis[otilde]es para a resolução de disputas às disputas relativas ao IDE. O clima de IDE melhorado, baseado em regras, pode ajudar a aumentar o IDE no NAFTA e estimular o crescimento e a competitividade. As regras para FDI no NAFTA também podem servir de modelo para outros acordos como o acordo multilateral sobre investimento da OCDE e a para a emergente liberalização de investimentos na área da APEC.     

欧盟、北美优惠性原产地规则对我国的借鉴

经济全球化的加剧使得中间品贸易越来越频繁,最终产品的国籍变得越来越模糊。在我国参与组建更多区域性优惠贸易协定时,优惠性原产地规则显然成为一项重要的贸易政策工具。欧盟与北美两大地区的原产地规则已在世界范围内造成广泛影响,为我国原产地规则的制定提供了有益的参考。在简单介绍原产地规则后着重研究了欧盟与北美的优惠性原产地规则。在分析我国原产地规则的基础上,从欧美的实践总结出几点启示,即我国应逐步完善制度性管理规则,逐渐协调和统一原产地规则并结合自身目标综合使用标准。     

东盟与NAFTA投资规则的比较分析

本文对东盟和NAFTA两大自由投资贸易区的投资规则进行了简要的比较,认为两者的差异反映了处于不同经济发展阶段的区域对投资的要求,而两者的共性反映了国际投资保护规则的走向一致的发展趋势。     

The Impact of Product-Country Image and Marketing Efforts on Retailer-Perceived Brand Equity: An Empirical Analysis

Although both product-country images (PCI) and firm assets such as brand equity have been extensively studied in separate contexts, we know very little about the combined performance effects of these two important constructs in international research. Extant research has investigated brand equity primarily from a consumer perspective, but rarely from the point of view of a retailer. Retailers represent the ultimate participants in the value chain selling the product to consumers. They have the ability to significantly influence consumers’ evaluations and purchase decisions. Based upon existing literature documenting the contributions of PCI and marketing activities on brand equity, this study extends these findings by investigating their effects on retailer-perceived brand equity (RPBE) and ultimate brand profitability performance. Results indicate that both marketing activities and PCI affect retailer-perceived brand equity with PCI also strongly and positively influencing brand profitability performance.     

Conflict analysis of the NAFTA negotiations

The 1991–92 negotiations for a North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) are modelled at two points in time during the negotiation process from a Mexican perspective. The first model in February 1992 captures the positions of the parties on several key issues. The second model in April 1992 concentrates on the energy issue, which is of particular importance to Mexico. The formal model provided a framework for structuring the negotiation, and a communications medium for discussing and recording it. The analyses were fairly accurate as predictors of events and could have been effective in giving advice to the negotiations.     

NAFTA Students’ Whistle-Blowing Perceptions: A Case of Sexual Harassment

Business students from the three NAFTA countries were shown a possible Sexual Harassment scenario from Arthur Andersen’s Business Ethics Program. They were asked to respond to a pre-questionnaire concerning the three characters’ behaviors and possible actions and a post-questionnaire after writing a report from the points of view of the three characters in the scenario. The students were asked to consider whether the characters should report the possible harasser to their supervisor, and thus engage in whistle-blowing behavior, as well as directly confront the harasser. Hypotheses are formulated for the three NAFTA countries based on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. There were significant differences, but in some cases not in the direction expected. Gender differences are also explored, but there were few significant differences.     

Brand origin and country of manufacture influences on brand equity and the moderating role of brand typicality

This research investigates how country macro and micro images associated with both brand origin (BO) and country of manufacture (COM) impact two main dimensions of brand equity-brand image and brand quality. Whereas BO images relate positively to both dimensions of brand equity, COM images exert an impact on brand quality, not on brand image. The typicality of the brand as a representative of the country of origin moderates the impact of BO on brand equity, such that the effects of BO on brand equity are stronger when the brand is more typical. The authors explore implications for theory and practice.     

美国和墨西哥在CUSTA和NAFTA中的贸易增长效应

本文选用美国和墨西哥1981-2007年间按SITC一位数商品分类的双边贸易数据,修正了Magee(2004)的进口需求方程,运用反事实估计方法和GLS回归方法对美国和墨西哥在CUSTA和NAFTA中贸易流变化进行回归分析,测定并比较两种一体化协定给美国和墨西哥带来的贸易增长效应。结果显示:NAFTA给经济水平较发达的美国带来了进口的大量增长,有利于美国的福利增加,并且这种福利的增加是稳定的,而对墨西哥的贸易增长效应却长期为负值;在不同商品类别中,两种一体化协定的效应不同,其中在一些商品类别中具有负效应且绝对值较大。所以,发展中国家参与南北型经济一体化时应该更多地关注其动态福利效应。     

WTO与NAFTA争端解决机制管辖权冲突研究

由于管辖范围存在重叠而又缺少协调规则,WTO与区域贸易协定间普遍存在着发生管辖权冲突的可能。实践中案例已有多起,本文仅以NAFTA为例分析了管辖权冲突产生的原因及后果,考察了WTO在实践中的做法及传统解决冲突原则能发挥作用的空间,得出冲突无法避免又实难解决的结论,并认为在此情况下减轻冲突不良后果的途径或许是一种更为明智的选择,指出NAFTA在实践中的做法将为其他区域贸易协定处理与WTO的关系提供有益的借鉴。     

NAFTA与墨西哥玉米:预期与实际效果的比较分析

墨西哥是玉米的故乡。NAFTA将墨西哥的玉米进口许可证制度转化为关税配额制度,并在15年内逐步取消。墨西哥在NAFTA期间的实践表明,NAFTA对墨西哥玉米部门的预期效果并未完全实现,其原因包含政策变革等多方面因素。     

Is the Country of Origin the Fifth Element in the Marketing Mix of Imported Wine?

Abstract

The research builds a theoretical understanding and managerial debate of country of origin effects for agricultural produce for which the growing country and region have been regarded as important bases for differential advantage. Especially, it is focused in the wine industry, which has faced unprecedented competitive marketing challenges over the last decade.     

比较借鉴视角下ECFA争端解决机制建构研究——以WTO、CAFTA、NAFTA争端解决机制为鉴

WTO、CAFTA、NAFTA争端解决机制与ECFA争端解决机制在适用范围上具同质性,这为机制间的相互借鉴提供了可能性。通过比较,除了整合出WTO、CAFTA、NAFTA三大争端解决机制共有的先进制度值得借鉴外,提炼出的三大机制各具的特色性制度亦颇宜借鉴。比较借鉴视角下,立足于ECFA成员法律地位的特殊性和现阶段两岸解决经贸与投资纠纷的主要方式这两个客观要素,通过对适用范围、争端解决机构、争端解决方式及程序、执行机制这四部分的具体制度设计务实地建构出ECFA争端解决机制的基本框架。     

Trade liberalization in services: Investor responses to NAFTA’s cross-border trucking provisions

ABSTRACT

We investigate the response of US trucking firms to the removal of barriers to cross-border trucking under NAFTA. This was done via a program implemented in 2007, cancelled in 2009, and reinstated in 2011. We use a model of endogenous exporting to show that this can arise from incorrect expectations of import competition. We find that, unsurprisingly, the program’s start resulted in lower stock returns, particularly for border firms. However, later policy changes indicate that investors, and particularly those investing in US multinationals, viewed the pilot as beneficial.     

Patterns of Self-Efficacy Within NAFTA: United States,Canada, and Mexico

Self-efficacy has been shown to be a key attribute of successful business leaders and in today's global economy, must be studied in terms of patterns of crossvergence. The paper examines both individual characteristics (gender, age, work experience, and management experience) and culture as they relate to self-efficacy in North America. Women in our sample had slightly lower self-efficacy, which increased with work and management experience. Age and membership in an individualistic culture were not related to self-efficacy; in fact, our Mexican participants demonstrated slightly higher self-efficacy propensities. These results suggest that organizations might consider devoting special attention to development of mentor and other programs particularly to females initiating their career. However, expected cultural patterns relating to self-efficacy might not hold as strongly, particularly with empowered groups such as executives and MBA students. Individual characteristics, particularly experience levels, have a greater impact on self-efficacy and should receive heightened considerations when organizations are making selection and other personnel decisions.     

How consumer ethnocentrism modulates neural processing of domestic and foreign products: A neuroimaging study

Consumer services literature offers substantial evidence that ethnocentric consumers tend to prefer domestic over foreign products. Yet no research to date has delved into the question how consumer ethnocentrism (CE) modulates the neural processing of products. This is the first study resorting to neuroimaging to explore to what extent CE levels affect the processing of domestic (Spain) and foreign (USA and China) products. The brain data yielded by neuroimaging reveal that highly ethnocentric consumers experience a greater degree of activation in brain regions linked to self-reference and reward when considering to purchase domestic products and a greater activation in brain regions related to risk in the case of foreign products.     

The importance of origin as a quality attribute for beef: results from a Scottish consumer survey

Perception of country of origin and purchasing habits for beef were examined for urban and rural Scottish consumers. Origin was identified as being as important as intrinsic quality cues of colour and leanness, with rural consumers giving more weight to origin than urban ones. Most consumers interpreted ‘Scotch Beef’ and ‘British Meat’ label logos as evidence that the beef animals were ‘born, raised and slaughtered in Scotland or Britain’ respectively. The logos were taken as indicators of quality and safety. Both urban and rural respondents had higher agreement levels with Scotch beef as a safer, higher quality and more expensive commodity than British meat. Rural consumers made more use of butcher shops for purchase, but both groups sought butcher beef for quality reasons and supermarket sources because of convenience.     

How do customers engage in social media-based brand communities: The moderator role of the brand's country of origin?

Across the globe, companies increasingly use social media-based brand communities (SMBBC) to facilitate customer engagement (CE). This study clarifies the relationship between brand trust and CE in SMBBC, which is often inconsistent in previous literature. Drawing on the uses and gratifications theory, we examine the motivations that drive customers' active and passive engagement behaviors. Additionally, this study employs multi-group analysis to compare the differences in the customer engagement process concerning the brand's country of origin. The empirical results demonstrate that brand trust is an antecedent to customer engagement in a long-term relationship. Brand affiliation, entertainment, and investigation prompt customers' active and passive engagement behaviors; the opportunity-seeking only encourages the passive engagement, but the motivation of conversation prompts neither active nor passive behaviors of the customers. Notably, there is no significant difference in Chinese customer engagement between domestic and foreign brands on Sina Weibo. The research enriches the understanding of customer engagement in SMBBC and provides valuable insights for international brands keen on the Chinese market.     

Interactive effects of country of origin and product category on product evaluations

This research examined the effects of country of origin and product category on product evaluations for 21 countries and 18 products. As hypothesized, product evaluations were highest for highly-developed countries, followed by newly-industrialized, newly-marketizing, and developing-country groups. Further, the product-category and country-of-origin effects interacted such that, depending upon the country group, different product categories received more, equal, or less favorable evaluations compared to other product categories. Several variables and processes underlying these effects are identified and integrated into a conceptual model.     

Country of Origin Principle in the EU Market for Audiovisual Media Services: Consumer’s Friend or Foe?

The country of origin principle, the cornerstone of the EU Television Without Frontiers Directive – to become the Audiovisual Media Services Directive – is often criticised as being insensitive to the legitimate national public interest to protect viewers – and consumers – of audiovisual media content. This paper seeks to demystify this pessimistic perception of the country of origin rule from the perspective of the consumer interest. It demonstrates that the possible negative repercussions of the country of origin logic for consumer welfare are mitigated in three ways: by specific derogations possibilities foreseen in the Directive in case of violations of the fundamental rules on protection of minors and of human dignity; through the margin of broadcasting control left to the Member States in the areas beyond those coordinated by the Directive, and by means of a new two-step anti-circumvention procedure introduced by the new Directive.

Advancing the country image construct — A commentary essay

This article provides a review of the study by Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009), “Advancing the country image construct,” with a view towards highlighting the gaps in the broader country-of-origin literature. The literature mostly ignores pivotal points that should influence both the direction and the design of country-related research in international marketing. At least six key considerations in country-of-origin research deserve concurrent attention in future studies. They include: (1) the globalization of markets, (2) ecologically appropriate designs, (3) country-of-origin knowledge, saliency, and use, (4) labeling practices and requirements, (5) a focus on appropriate segments, and (6) the role of country of origin in foreign direct investment process. This commentary essay explores these issues with a view towards enhancing the relevance, ecological validity, and the quality of future research efforts.