Measuring Consumer Ethnocentrism: An Assessment of Reliability,Validity and Dimensionality of the CETSCALE in a Developing Market

ABSTRACT

Based on 305 surveyed consumers in Zimbabwe’s two major cities (Harare and Bulawayo), the study sought mainly to measure consumer ethnocentrism and to test psychometric properties of the CETSCALE in Zimbabwe using structural equation modeling. It was established that the construct of consumer ethnocentrism comprises two dimensions, namely negative influence of foreign products, and preference for domestic products. Consumer ethnocentrism was found to be moderately high. The psychometric properties of the CETSCALE tested above the required thresholds. Consumer ethnocentrism was found to negatively influence consumer attitude towards imported poultry products. The study has implications for managers and future researchers.     

Market Segmentation by Exploring Buyer Lifestyle Dimensions and Ethnocentrism Among Vietnamese Consumers: An Empirical Study

ABSTRACT

Studying consumer lifestyles and ethnocentrism is a unique way of finding out buyer behavior and market segmentation. This paper identifies consumer market segments existing among Vietnamese consumers by using lifestyle patterns and ethnocentrism. Data for the study was collected through personal interviews in two main cities in Vietnam, Ho-Chi Min City and Hanoi, which attract growing urban industrialization and population migration rapidly degrading places. Survey findings indicated that ten lifestyle dimensions among the Vietnamese consumers had an influence on their ethnocentric tendencies and buying behavior. The findings provide some implications to marketers who currently operate in or are planning to enter into the Vietnamese market in the near future.     

A meta-analysis of consumer ethnocentrism across 57 countries

The concept of consumer ethnocentrism was introduced more than 30 years ago, and since then it has received keen interest among academic researchers. However, empirical evidence in published studies has been inconclusive and many macro-drivers of consumer ethnocentrism received cursory attention. This study meta-analyses 240 studies from 57 countries and tries to understand the key drivers of consumer ethnocentrism. The results indicate that consumer ethnocentrism is a universal phenomenon and is driven by culture and the interaction of economic and ethnic diversity variables. Challenging popular beliefs, the findings suggest that neither globalization nor economic threats are unconditional drivers of consumer ethnocentrism. Their effects are conditional on cultural values and economic situation. Results provide evidence that multi-ethnic societies tend to be more consumer ethnocentric when the culture of a country is not strong in egalitarianism. Finally, the paper presents evidence that consumer ethnocentrism affects the imports of consumer goods in a country.     

Attitude Toward Globalization and Country-of-Origin Evaluations: Toward a Dynamic Theory

ABSTRACT

In theory, increased globalization should lead to greater openness to different cultures, thereby reducing consumer ethnocentrism and resulting in improved consumer perceptions and behavior with respect to foreign products. However, empirical studies testing the impact of globalization have met with mixed results possibly due to the effects of globalization occurring at different levels in the mind-sets among consumers. This notion of “multi-layered consciousness” and its effects on country of origin image are proposed and tested in a theoretical model incorporating a dynamic theory of globalization, to supplement the conventional theory of country-of-origin effects. As predicted, results showed that country-of-origin image is negatively influenced by consumer ethnocentrism, but is not positively influenced by globalization, despite consumers' self-perceived global mindsets (i.e., positive attitude toward globalization and subsequent global openness).     

Broad and Narrow Country-of-Origin Effects and the Domestic Country Bias

ABSTRACT

Across three studies and three countries, this research specifies the effect of consumer ethnocentrism on domestic country bias. Extending extant research, it distinguishes the moderating effects of broad (country image, country production image) and narrow (country product category image) country-of-origin effects, demonstrating that the latter mitigate domestic country bias more strongly than the former. Moreover, nationality emerges as an antecedent of consumer ethnocentrism and domestic country bias. The findings enable international marketers to predict domestic country bias in different country markets. Additionally, this research advocates using a finer-grained, narrow view of country-of-origin effects, instead of a broad perspective.     

Managing Opportunism in China: The Roles of Guanxi,Environmental Uncertainty,and Management Culture

ABSTRACT

This cross-cultural comparison aims to understand whether the influence of consumer ethnocentrism (CE) on consumer preference for domestic versus foreign products is product category and country-of-origin dependent. Three countries with dissimilar cultural orientation and economic status—China, South Korea, and the United States—were examined. American consumers were found to be more ethnocentric than Chinese and South Korean consumers. CE was found to significantly and positively predict American and Korean consumers’ preference for domestic products across product categories, while Chinese consumers’ CE did not translate into their preference for Chinese products. In addition, the relationship between CE and purchase preference varied across product categories as well as countries of origin.     

Purchase behavior in favor of domestic products in the West Balkans

Despite the long tradition of research on country-of-origin and consumer ethnocentrism, many of the issues remain unresolved in the literature, most notably the relationship between cognitive, affective and normative mechanisms in consumer choice behavior, and generalizability of existing research findings to non-traditional emerging and/or small country markets. This study responds to the current gaps in knowledge in that it examines behavioral manifestations of consumers’ choice of domestic vs. foreign products in four transitioning post-war markets in the West Balkans. Data were collected via personal interviews with 1954 adult urban consumers. The model of domestic purchase behavior was tested using SEM analysis. The results for all four country samples indicate that consumer ethnocentrism has affected domestic purchase behavior both directly and indirectly through domestic product appraisal. Moreover, we found consumer worldliness, a controversial construct in previous studies, to be uniformly negatively related to ethnocentrism. On the other hand, the findings related to the role of national identification as an antecedent to consumer ethnocentrism and domestic product appraisal were inconsistent across the samples. The implications of these findings for the validity and generalizability of existing models of consumer behavior in a new cultural context are considered, and implications for marketers interested in exploiting opportunities in the region are discussed.     

The Influence of Hedonic Values on Consumer Behaviors

Summary

This study investigated the influence of hedonic values on the consumer behavior of young Chinese. The results show that hedonic values are negatively associated with utilitarian orientation and positively associated with novelty seeking, responsiveness to promotion stimuli, and preference for foreign brands. Personal income moderates the relationship between hedonic values and brand consciousness. Conceptual importance and managerial implications are discussed.     

Consumer Ethnocentrism and Country-of-Origin Effects in the Moroccan Market

ABSTRACT

Differences in consumer values exert a powerful impact on product acceptance. Morocco is no stranger to this phenomenon. While this country's consumers have easy access to world markets, consumer ethnocentrism can restrict choice. The objective of this research has been to investigate ethnocentric behavior of Moroccan consumers and the extent to which domestic products might be preferred to foreign products or vice versa. Data were collected via face-to-face interviews with 400 consumers in four major Moroccan cities. A questionnaire was developed for this purpose using a version of the Consumer Ethnocentrism Scale (CETSCALE). Opinions about four products were solicited. The four products were jeans, cars, shampoo, and juice. The interviewees were asked their opinions about product attributes and about various countries-of-origin. Their responses were analyzed also on the basis of their most essential demographic characteristics. Logistic regression models were developed to analyze the data.     

The Country-of-Origin Effect and Consumer Attitudes to “Buy Local” Campaign

Abstract

The objective of this paper is to investigate the relationship between ethnocentrism of Ghanaian consumers and their attitudes toward a “buy local” campaign. Two hundred and thirty three consumers were interviewed in Cape Coast, the capital city and administrative centre of the Central region of Ghana. Data for the study were collected through interviewing using the mall intercept approach and factor analysed. Our findings show a relationship between ethnocentrism and attitudes of Ghanaian consumers toward the “buy local” campaign. Furthermore, the factor analysis results indicate that the attitudes of the Ghanaian consumers to the buy locally-made products can be characterized as protectionist, nationalistic, and self-interest. Implicitly, the consumers will buy Ghanaian-made products where they are of comparable quality and price as foreign-made products. This requires companies to ensure that their products are of high quality and prices are commensurate with quality. This study contributes to the ethnocentrism and country of origin literature pertaining to the African region, which is sorely under-researched.     

Consumer ethnocentrism when foreign products are better

In recent years, there has been a great deal of research exploring the concept of consumer ethnocentrism, although little has been done in Eastern Bloc countries. In these countries, foreign brands are often clearly superior to domestic alternatives. This study applied the CETSCALE in a survey of 218 Polish consumers with respect to attitudes and beliefs for one domestic and two foreign gas station brands. The findings suggest that, in a situation where foreign brands are superior to domestic ones, consumer ethnocentrism is displayed in more positive perceptions of the domestic brand, with little or no effect on perceptions of foreign brands. Moreover, the effect of consumer ethnocentrism on evaluations of different types of product qualities (search vs. experience) is explored. The results support the prediction that consumer ethnocentrism has greater impact on evaluations of experience qualities than on search qualities. Managerial implications and future research directions are suggested. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The extension of animosity model of foreign product purchase: Does country of origin matter?

Although a growing literature has investigated how animosity and consumer ethnocentrism change customers’ perceptions of foreign products in developed markets, research examining these effects in developing markets is scarce. Additionally, the role of country of origin on such effects has received far less attention. The current paper is developed to bridge these gaps. The primary objectives of this paper are to examine whether the animosity and consumer ethnocentrism models that work in the Western world could be applied into a developing market like Vietnam, and whether these relationships are moderated by country of origin (USA versus China). Data from 485 Vietnamese customers illustrate that most of the main effects are significant except for the relationship between ethnocentrism and product judgement, and the relationship between cosmopolitanism and willingness to buy. Furthermore, out of the three moderation effects, the influence of country of origin on the relationship between ethnocentrism and willingness to buy is significant. The paper concludes with theoretical and managerial implications, limitations, and future research.     

The Effects of Consumer Ethnocentrism and Country of Origin on Polish Consumers' Evaluation of Foreign Manufactured Products

The admission of Poland to the European Union may be perceived as the symbolic crowning of a long period of economic transformation. Poland today is not only an emerging market but an emerging culture experiencing a strong economic development wherein old ideals are confronted with new Western values. On this background, the objective of this research is to assess the level and impact of consumer ethnocentrism and the effect of country of origin on consumers’ evaluation of and buying intentions toward foreign manufactured products. Medium-expensive consumer durables—design furniture and fashion clothes—imported from Denmark are examined. Findings show consumer ethnocentrism is present and that more than one-fifth of consumers are highly ethnocentric but also that ethnocentrism has no direct effect on the evaluation of product quality or on buying intention for either of the products from Denmark.     

Being Arab and American: Understanding Ethnocentric Tendencies for Arab American Consumers

ABSTRACT

Scant research exists on Arab Americans' ethnocentric tendencies towards purchasing American-made products. This study explores the nexus among consumer ethnocentrism, empathy towards local workers, and ethnic identification. We examined ethnic identification, patriotism, dogmatism, and internationalism as potential influences on Arab Americans' ethnocentric tendencies towards purchasing products made in the US. Data were collected from 165 Arab Americans living in Michigan. We found that when Arab consumers felt empathic towards local workers, they were more ethnocentric towards purchasing local products. Arab Americans' ethnic identification neither influenced their ethnocentric tendencies towards American-made products nor their empathic feelings towards American workers. Our study provides key contributions related to minorities' preferences for locally made products.     

Understanding Consumer Ethnocentrism in Developing Countries: Case Bangladesh

ABSTRACT

This article argues that the traditional belief that “consumer ethnocentrism is a phenomenon of developed countries only” is no longer true. To establish this argument, our study assesses the applicability of the Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale (CETSCALE) to Bangladesh by judging the unidimensionality feature of the same. The methodology is based on a sample of 788 respondents collected from 27 districts in Bangladesh. Statistically significant results show that for three chosen sociodemographic groups, namely, students, job holders, and businesspersons, the original CETSCALE is to a large extent applicable as those groups have shown positive attitudes in retaining 12 to 14 items of the 17 items of the original scale. However, the groups and the respondents as a whole did not agree with the unidimensionality feature of the CETSCALE. Moreover, the results of the study show that Bangladeshi consumers in greater extent prefer to see “Made in Bangladesh” tags when buying consumer products that Bangladeshi businesses can produce locally—a significant potential threat to international business that multinational companies need to address.     

Investigating the impact of consumers’ patriotism and ethnocentrism on purchase intention: Moderating role of consumer guilt and animosity

The present study aims to examine how consumer guilt and consumer animosity, as moderators, can impact consumers' purchase intention toward domestic products. A total of 385 responses were used to test the proposed relationship. PROCESS macro was used to examine the mediating and moderating relationships. The present study provides guidance to international marketers on why and how they should do extra efforts to mitigate guilt feeling. The study contributes to the growing body of literature on consumer ethnocentrism by investigating moderating role of consumer guilt and consumer animosity.     

The dark side of consumer life in the age of virtual and mobile technology

ABSTRACT

This study extends the nascent stream of research that investigates the contributions of mobile and virtual technology to consumer misbehaviour and dark side of consumer life. Using a qualitative approach, the present research explores the nature of consumer–technology relationship, specifically virtual and mobile technology, at the level of lived experience. The findings reflect eight important facets of technology-related dark-side consumer behaviour that, in one way or another, cause harm to the individual user, other consumers or society at large. These themes showcase human entrapment in mobile and virtual technology. The findings have significant implications for marketing managers as well as consumer well-being.     

Profiling Peruvian Consumers' Lifestyles,Market Segmentation,and Ethnocentrism

ABSTRACT

Exploring consumer lifestyles and ethnocentrism is one way of investigating buyer behavior and market segmentation. This article studies consumer market segments existing among Peruvian consumers by using lifestyle patterns and ethnocentrism. Data for the study was collected through self-survey in two major cities located in Peru, South America. The results point out that there are nine style dimensions among Peruvian consumers that influence their ethnocentric tendencies. These findings have implications for marketers who currently operate in or are planning to enter the Peruvian market in the near future.

RESUMEN. Los estilos de vida de los consumidores y el etnocentrismo pueden explorarse a través de la investigación del comportamiento de los compradores y la segmentación del mercado. Este estudio analiza los segmentos existentes en los diferentes segmentos de mercado peruanos, utilizando patrones sobre su estilo de vida y etnocentrismo. Los datos utilizados en este estudio se colectaron a través de una encuesta realizada en dos importantes ciudades situadas en Perú, América del Sur. Los resultados señalan que existen nueve dimensiones sobre el estilo de vida entre los consumidores peruanos, que ejercen influencia sobre sus tendencias etnocéntricas. Estos hallazgos tienen sus propias implicancias para los operadores de mercado que operan actualmente en o tienen la intención de entrar en el mercado peruano en un futuro cercano.

RESUMO. Explorar os estilos de vida e o etnocentrismo dos consumidores constitui uma forma de investigar o comportamento dos compradores e a segmentação do mercado. Este estudo aborda os segmentos de mercado existentes entre os consumidores peruanos, usando padrões de estilo de vida e o etnocentrismo. Os dados do estudo foram coletados através de uma autopesquisa em duas grandes cidades localizadas no Peru. Os resultados indicam que nove dimensões de estilo entre os consumidores peruanos exercem influência sobre suas tendências etnocêntricas. Essas constatações têm implicações para comerciantes que atualmente operam no mercado peruano ou que planejam ingressar nele no futuro próximo.     

Mitigating consumer ethnocentrism via advertising and media consumption in a transitional market

Consumer ethnocentrism is considered an important barrier to consumption in the global marketplace. Although the concept of consumer ethnocentrism has been investigated over many years in developed markets, there is little research addressing the mitigation of consumer ethnocentrism in transitional economies, which are becoming increasingly important in the global marketplace. One such market, Russia, represents a major potential investment opportunity for global marketers. In this study, we undertake an exploratory study investigating consumer ethnocentrism’s negative influence on Russians’ attitudes towards foreign products and their frequency of purchase of foreign products. We also demonstrate that the influence of consumer ethnocentrism on the frequency of purchase of foreign products is moderated by consumers’ exposure to mass communication (i.e. exposure to television, exposure to foreign movies) and by marketing communication efforts (i.e. exposure to foreign product advertising, involvement with foreign product advertising). In addition to extending theoretical research to a transitional, non-Western context, the empirical results also provide implications for international advertising practitioners.     

Do Consumers Discriminate Against Foreign Companies Even When They are Green?

The international business literature has long investigated the role of corporate environmentalism, or “going green,” in business. However, this research has been limited regarding the dynamics of a firm's eco-friendly image and consumers' intention to purchase the firm's products in light of the consumer's complex social viewpoint and how that eco-friendly image is perceived. This limitation is due in part to the complex nature of the eco-friendly image-purchase intention relationship, especially when taking into account the consumers' identification with the firm, as well as the role of consumer ethnocentrism. Through the use of an experimental survey, we found differences between countries and the role of the firm's eco-friendly image and consumer ethnocentrism. In particular, an eco-friendly image was positively related to identification with the firm in a German company sample. The findings also show that this identification mediates the effect of eco-friendly image on purchase intention. Consumer ethnocentrism significantly moderated the effect of this identification on purchase intention as well in the Chinese company sample. Implications for managers of multinational enterprises are discussed, as are avenues for future research.