TRADE OPENNESS: AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE

Australia's external trade is relatively low compared with the size of its economy. Indeed, Australia's openness ratio (exports plus imports as a proportion of GDP) in 2002 was the third-lowest among the 30 OECD countries. This paper seeks to understand Australia's low openness by analysing the empirical determinants of aggregate country trade. We present an equation for country openness which explains a substantial amount of the cross-country variation. The most important explanators of openness are population and a measure of distance to potential trade partners. Countries with larger populations trade less, as do countries that are relatively more remote. Furthermore, after controlling for trade policy there is little evidence of a positive correlation between openness and economic development. The openness equation suggests that Australia's level of trade is relatively close to what would be expected. The most important factors in explaining Australia's low openness ratio are its large geographic size and distance to the rest of the world.     

REGIONAL ACCOUNTS IN ACTION: CONCERNING METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS FROM A BELGIAN PERSPECTIVE

In this paper we address the methodological problems encountered in the building of regional accounts. These problems are discussed by describing the methodological and conceptual options applied in an original and recent experience with regional accounts in Belgium. A comparison is offered with alternative choices concerning the regionalisation of main aggregates made in some other countries. The reasons for the urgency of an appropriate regional accounting framework (a regional equivalent of the universal SNA) are outlined in the conclusion.     

GENERATIONAL ACCOUNTING—AN AUSTRALIAN PERSPECTIVE

This paper presents a set of generational for Australia, following the approach developed in the U. S. by Auerbach, Gokhale and Kotlikoff. In Contrast to the Auerbach et al. , results for the U. S., the generational accounts presented here do not imply that a disproportionately high fiscal burden will have to be borne by future generations in Australia. In the paper, generational accounts are used to estimate intergenerational redistribution related to policy changes in the area of public retirement pensions.     

ACCOUNTING FOR NONMARKET HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTION WITHIN A NATIONAL ACCOUNTS FRAMEWORK

The satellite accounts illustrated in this paper reflect the household's role as a producer and an investor in durables as well as a consumer by modifying the NIPA's to (1) incorporate the value of nonmarket (unpaid) household work into GDP; and (2) treat expenditures on consumer durables as investment and measure the value of the services those durables provide. Additionally, an Input–Output (I–O) model highlights the household's functions as a producer and investor in much greater detail for the year 1992 by incorporating a household industry for each time-use activity and by showing the inputs to and outputs from each household industry's production.     

能力—机会框架：理解企业创业和成长的统一视角*

“交易范式”影响下发展出来的主流经济学片面强调激励和契约,无法为理解真实世界的企业创业和成长现象提供有效理论支撑。本文重新构建了一个根植于“生产范式”,尤其是资源—能力理论和演化视角的,并能够适用于理解后发展语境下企业创业和成长现象的统一理论框架——“能力—机会”框架。这个框架包含四个基本命题：第一,当讨论企业创业和成长问题时,本质上都在讨论组织能力和市场机会的问题。第二,能力和机会的来源、类型以及二者系统性的变化过程,共同直接决定了企业的创业选择和成长动力。第三,能力和机会同时具有工业和产品特定性,只能在持续的工业生产和管理过程中内生出来。往往已经存在或有条件创造出什么类型的能力和机会时,才可能出现相应状态的创业和成长活动。第四,后发展语境中的特定组织能力和市场机会,从未因为市场经济制度的存在而自动产生。政府部门和公共研究机构等非市场组织,充当了塑造能力和机会的状态及其变化过程的关键力量。总之,“能力—机会”框架提供了一种显著区别于主流经济学的新研究视角,同时有助于弥合创业研究和企业成长研究长期存在的鸿沟。     

PRICES IN THE NATIONAL ACCOUNTS FRAMEWORK: A CASE FOR COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS*

There are serious questions about the social costs and benefits of extending the role of prices in the national accounts. The costs may be greater, and the benefits smaller, than is commonly supposed. Many important uses of price (and other) data do not require that these data be organized within an elaborate—or even any—framework of national accounts. Also, the basic price (and other) data are still too often very scanty and rough. Would it not be better to devote available resources to improving these data rather than trying to force them, prematurely, into an elaborated set of national accounts?     

REGIONAL SOCIAL ACCOUNTS FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM1

Estimates of gross domestic product have been produced by various writers or agencies for Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and for Wales there are estimates of expenditure also; but only a very tentative attempt has hitherto been made at estimates for the English regions, mainly because the data present difficulties. In the present investigation, in which the estimates in the Bluebook on National Income and Expenditure are partitioned between regions, item by item, a production method was first explored, but this was replaced by use of Inland Revenue data on employment and self-employment income, and production and miscellaneous sources on profits etc. Estimates of expenditure raise particular difficulties in regard to private capital formation and, for different reasons, some parts of public current expenditure. The estimates have been used to throw light on interregional variations in income produced per head and earnings per head, and their relation to activity rates and industrial structure. The flows of property income, and of public transfers of purchasing-power and benefits between regions are also explored, along with regional current balances and evidence bearing on differences in pressure of demand. Finally, the scope for the development of regional social accounting in the United Kingdom is discussed.     

一种区域旅游形象分析的技术程序

本文主要探讨区域旅游形象分析与建立的技术程序。文章首先说明了建立区域旅游形象的必要性,继而提出建立区域旅游形象需要从前期的基础性工作（包括地方性研究,受众调查,替代性分析）和在此基础上的显示性工作（包括理念核心,界面意象,传播口号,传播视觉符号）两方面进行分析。     

COMMODITY BALANCES AND NATIONAL ACCOUNTS: A SAM PERSPECTIVE

This paper is concerned with the treatment of commodity and activity balances in a national accounts context. It makes use of a general method for reducing the size of a social accounting matrix (SAM) by apportioning the elements of one or more accounts to the rest. The national accounts are looked at in terms of their usefulness for policy analysis, not least analysis of the impact of price changes. The SNA convention of separately distinguishing activities and commodities is endorsed. However, in contrast to the SNA, it is argued that for analytic purposes commodity transactions should be recorded at market prices, with a separate account for each of the markets for a given commodity in which a distinct price prevails. The SNA SAM is shown to be a reduced form of the SAM resulting from this recommended treatment of commodity transactions, while a further round of reductions (apportionments) yields SAMs which are familiar from input-output analysis, in which activities and commodities are not separately distinguished. It is argued that no special effort would be required to produce SAMs in which commodity balances are recorded at market prices as recommended here (the necessary data are also required to produce the conventional SNA tableaux), and that all reduced form versions of such SAMs, including the SNA, are inferior as a basis for the analysis of price effects on the structure of production.     

PUBLIC FINANCE AND REGIONAL ACCOUNTS*

This paper discusses the problems that arise in the regional allocation of public sector accounts. These problems arise mainly in connection with the regional allocation of government expenditures on a governing rather than a procurement basis, and in the derivation of a meaningful surplus or deficit. The latter in turn requires an examination of the real geographic incidence of government revenues—to avoid, for instance, the assignment of the whole tobacco tax to Virginia and North Carolina. The use of a procurement basis for government product and the real geographic distribution of direct tax incidence for government revenue would produce a more complete and meaningful regional surplus or deficit measure, and gross regional products will not be as subject to spurious inter-regional variation.     

AN INTEGRATED SYSTEM OF SOCIAL ACCOUNTS FOR AN ECONOMY OF THE YUGOSLAV TYPE

The system of social accounts described in this article is based on the following five principles: (1) Producers of goods and services are working organizations which represent groups of people or individuals organized for the purpose of earning a living by producing goods and services that satisfy individual or collective needs. Business, government, profit and nonprofit, corporate and unincorporated working organizations are treated in a uniform way. (2) Since the behaviors of the market and non-market sectors differ considerably, these two sectors are consistently separated throughout the accounting system. (3) There are four basic activities: (a) production, (b) consumption, (c) investment, and (d) income redistribution. These call for four separate accounts: (a) Working Organizations, (b) Households, (c) Community, including government and certain non-government institutions, and (d) Accumulation. The fifth account, Rest of the World, serves for balancing purposes. (4) The same classifications of transactions are used for activities and institutions, making possible complete matching of social product and financial flows accounts. (5) The system strives to achieve the maximum analytical flexibility. Some of its possibilities are visible from the classification of industries: A. Market (Material) Sector: 1. Agriculture, II. Forestry, III. Mining and Manufacturing, IV. Construction, V. Transportation, VI. Trade and Catering, VII. Handicrafts; B. Non-Market (Non-Material) Sector: VIII. Housing and Communal Economy, IX. Education, Culture, and Social Welfare, X. Public Services Social Organizations (Political, Religious, etc.), Finance and Insurance, Public Administration and Judiciary, National Defence. Sector A corresponds to the material definition of social product. Sectors A + B correspond to the SNA definition. Sectors A + B minus Industry × reflects the welfare definition. Further, Industries I-IV produce goods, V-VII market services, VIII and IX non-market services with welfare content, X intermediate nonmarket services, V-X all services.     

AN ANALYSIS OF REVISIONS OF NATIONAL ACCOUNTS DATA FOR 40 COUNTRIES

The paper analyzes annual revisions of figures for G.N.P. and 8 of its components in 40 countries. It arrives at the conclusion that first estimates are very often significantly biased downwards, especially Private Consumption, Fixed Investment, G.D.P. and G.N.P. Also successive revisions are sometimes correlated (negatively in most cases). The distribution of revisions differ as between developed and developing countries.     

区域关联视角下的人力资本与地区经济发展*

本文通过空间拓展卢卡斯（Lucas）模型的生产函数,讨论了区域关联视角下人力资本与地区经济发展的互动关系。主要结论为：（1）相同劳动力在人力资本总量更高的地区享有更高的收入;（2）人力资本总量的增加能提高地区实际产出,而其均量的提高能提升地区产出潜力;（3）综合考虑辐射效应和转移费用,经济高地的人力资本转出会优先惠及邻近地区。空间计量的实证还表明,人力资本对地区经济增长的区域间交叉影响正在加强,且其均量而非总量是造成地区间经济差异的主因。