Judith Butler on performativity and precarity: exploratory thoughts on gender and violence in India

Abstract

We turn to the philosopher and gender theorist Judith Butler for insight into how gender performativity (acting and actions restricted by gender norms) affects identity and thus individual agency. Gender performativity underlies the prevailing conceptualisation of women in India as being lesser. We anticipated that the extreme divide between wealth and poverty and higher and lower castes would affect women’s vulnerability. Yet, while lower class/caste women are undeniably at greater risk of sexual assault, even women of higher social status similarly embody ‘precarity’: a life lived without predictability, and thus without security. While structural changes have encouraged increased agentic performativity among women in India, a culture of condoned sexual violence is nonetheless an ongoing and horrifying reality.     

Risk markers of severe psychological violence against women: a WorldSAFE multi-country study

This study was an attempt to determine the prevalence and significant risk factors associated with severe psychological violence in 6 WorldSAFE sites. The respondents were 3975 women aged 15–49 years and residing in selected urban areas in Chile, Egypt, the Philippines and India. Using a standard instrument translated locally, psychological violence was measured using items indicating the following domains: verbal abuse, fear and separation. A woman who had experienced severe psychological violence had admitted that she had experienced any of the above-mentioned behaviors ‘3 or more times’ in her lifetime (lifetime prevalence) or with her current partner during the past 12 months (current prevalence). The results showed a lifetime prevalence of severe psychological violence ranging from 10.5% of women in Egypt to about 50% in Chile and Trivandrum, India. Verbal abuse was most common among the different behavioral indicators. A woman's mental health status and partner alcohol use were found to be the common significant risk factors. Recommendations were made to facilitate efforts to address severe psychological violence in developing countries.     

Marketing,violence and social cohesion: first steps to a conceptual approach to the understanding of the normalising role of marketing

ABSTRACT

This paper answers a call for contributions ‘dedicated to revealing how markets and marketing make violence culturally acceptable and socially normalised’. Such an investigation has to involve some in-depth conceptualisation with respect to the meanings of both marketing and violence. The market is an institution related to other institutions which altogether are – as in all societies – trying to cope with violence. Today our societies are based on both markets and democracy, but those institutions tend to be mutually contradictory. When marketing tends to replace politics and to almost religiously convert citizens into consumers it is social cohesion that is at stake. This paper aims at contributing to a deeper understanding of social/historical trends. As it highlights the importance of ideas (representations and motivations) and their links with changing institutions, it might help researchers and marketers to a broader understanding of their role and towards a more conscious social behaviour.     

Comedic violence in advertising: the role of normative beliefs and intensity of violence

Interest in the use of comedic violence in advertising has risen, but the research on this topic has been limited. Past studies have found positive effects of comedic violence in ads, with higher levels of violence increasing positive responses. However, given that the violence depicted in these ads is a violation of social norms, following the Social Norms Theory, it is proposed that individual norm beliefs about violence in advertising could be a significant factor in influencing ad outcome. Using an online panel of general consumers across two experiments, this study revealed that norm beliefs had a positive influence on comedic violence ad responses. In addition, when violence intensities of the ads were varied, individuals with lower norm beliefs responded more positively to low violence ads than high violence ads, whereas individuals with higher norm beliefs did not exhibit different responses to the two violence intensities. Mediation analyses were conducted to test for the underlying mechanisms. As comedic violence advertising may offend audiences, the findings provide targeting and design implications for advertisers interested in this strategy.     

Taboo in consumption: Social structure,gender and sustainable menstrual products

Although consumption taboos are prevalent in everyday life, consumer research interest in the topic remains scant and focuses mostly on taboo products. This research moves by focusing on taboo persons and explores how barriers are presented in consumption choices for such individuals. A qualitative research design was used in the study and in‐depth interviews were conducted with 31 women from middle and upper income classes who showed an inclination to purchase sustainable menstrual products (SMPs). This study analyses how the intimate and private consumption of SMPs gets transformed into a complex socially embedded consumption choice. The study explores how and why a social structure steeped in symbolic violence towards menstruating women constrains the consumption of SMPs. Disillusioned by patriarchal subordination, the women preferred to respect boundaries and maintain stability in their life. Despite their socialization and engagement in several sustainable consumption decisions prior to the consideration of SMPs, these women exhibited a lack of agency as they could not transgress orthodox gender boundaries even as their choice reinforced prevailing social inequalities. They sought to conform to the gendered habitus instead of engaging in an act of defiance. This act of self‐restraint, however, results in tensions as the women try to legitimize a consumption choice which is inconsistent with their attitude towards sustainable consumption. The study discusses the consequences of the new restrictions faced by the women as they reframe concerns about the environment and justify their choice.     

Becoming respectable: low-income young mothers,consumption and the pursuit of value

Teenage mothers find themselves caught between two discourses: the irresponsibility of youth and the responsibility of motherhood. We unravel some of the complexities surrounding the performance of socially approved ‘good mothering’, from a social position of restricted resources. We demonstrate the relevance of Skeggs’ notion of respectability in order to forge a deeper understanding of how young, low-income new mothers seek to secure social value and legitimacy via the marketplace. We identify a number of consumption strategies centred around identification and dis-identification, yet we recognise that young mothers’ careful marshalling of resources, in relation to consumption, risks being misread and could leave young women open to further scrutiny and negative evaluation, ultimately limiting their opportunity to secure a legitimate maternal identity.     

Studying the impact of religious symbols on domestic violence prevention in India: applying the theory of reasoned action to bystanders' reporting intentions

Using the theory of reasoned action (TRA), the study examines the process of religious beliefs, social norms and attitudes toward women to predict people's intentions to intervene when confronted with domestic violence. Drawing from a nationwide sample in India and the religion of Hinduism, the structural equation modeling (SEM) findings show support for the hypothesized models. The religious symbol primed one's level of religiosity, generating positive ad attitudes and intentions to report domestic violence. For both ads, beliefs in gender equality and social norms about helping were critical to reporting intentions. More importantly, the study extends the TRA by showing religion's relevance in public service persuasion. The study provides both theoretical and managerial implications as well as avenues for future research.     

Sex‐role conflict at work: its impact on consumption practices of working women in Turkey

Changing social norms regarding the role of women in society is fostered by women's participation in the workforce. Hence, changing role of working women in business life leads the transformation of gender stereotypes and roles. Women alter their gender role orientation according to the requirements of male‐dominated business life; however, the unchanged role in private life leads to sex‐role conflict. This study investigates the role of consumption as a key component of identity in the process of managing sex‐role conflict in a non‐Western cultural context. In‐depth interviews were conducted with working women with various cultural and educational backgrounds. According to the findings of the study, women are forming compatible identities, which reduce the perceived sex‐role conflict and consumption patterns are changing to suit the requirements of their new ways of living.     

Attitudes & effectiveness of professional programs for primary prevention of violence: exploratory validation of the PREVENT primary prevention of violence self-assessment

The PREVENT (Preventing Violence through Education, Networking, and Technical Assistance) project trained violence practitioners across the USA in Primary Prevention of Violence techniques (PPV). The purpose of this study is to describe the development and psychometric properties of the subscales of the PREVENT PPV Self Assessment. Of 800 participants, 585 responded (73.1%). We analyzed the data using factor analyses, reliabilities and LISREL structural equation measurement models. The Perceived PPV Project Success subscale exhibited a one-factor structure (R² = .534, X²/df = 1.28, p = .277, GFI = .99, NNFI = .99); PPV Self-Efficacy and Support showed a four-factor structure (R² = .583, X²/df = 3.7, p = .00, GFI = .94, NNFI = .93); Perceived PPV Collaboration showed a three factor structure (R² = .544, X²/df = 4.20, p = .00, GFI = .92, NNFI = .93); Anticipated Future PPV Work yielded a three-factor structure (R² = .656, X²/df = 4.76, p = .00, GFI = .94, NNFI = .91); and PPV Confidence a marginally acceptable two-factor structure (R² = .759, X²/df = 11.1, p = .00, GFI = .95, NNFI = .99). Perceived PPV Project Success demonstrated very strong predictive validity (χ²/df = 2.33, p = .0167, GFI = .984, RMSEA = .0585) of increased time devoted to PPV. These construct validated subscales represent a rich source of material for assessing professionals' attitudes and perseverance towards personal implementation of PPV. From these results, we recommend specific items from each subscale for further use by PPV trainers.     

The sibling effect on the consumption of phone services

The peer effect is a relevant issue in studies on consumption habits and consumers’ behaviour. Indeed, the extant literature shows that peers and siblings affect individual decisions and choices, as people generally follow peers’ and siblings’ examples. In other words, people imitate their peers. Starting from the existing theoretical models and empirical evidence that suggest a relevant impact of peers on one's decisions, this article analyses how the presence and the gender of siblings affects one's consumption of phone services. I consider a sample of 500 European undergraduate students. In order to isolate the peer effect, I restrict the analysis to the use of the phone for talking with friends. The results show highlight a strong sibling effect, whose magnitude and whose sign depend on both the gender of the siblings and on that of the interviewee.     

The hidden work of coping: gender and the micro-politics of household consumption in times of austerity

Abstract

This article explores the coping strategies of women in 10 middle-class Italian families facing economic crisis. We investigate food provision revealing the ceaseless extra work that goes into meal preparation. Adopting anthropological theories of thrift and sacrifice, we unpack participants’ micro-coping strategies, observing their tendency to redirect resources towards their loved ones and abnegating their own needs for the greater good of the family. This sacrifice is done out of necessity, reinforcing traditional gender inequalities in the home. However, there is also evidence that women take pride in their coping, developing new competencies and maintaining control over meal provision and thus the wider patterning of family life. We explore the significance of recessionary times for the constitution of female subjectivities at home.     

Women in Management in the New Economic Environment: The Case of India

Liberalization of the Indian economy has created considerable employment opportunities for those, including women, who possess marketable skills and talent. Historically, women in India have not enjoyed a good status in workplace settings whether in managerial or operative roles. This traditional positioning of women has restricted the intensity of their efforts towards realizing the benefits of the globalisation process. An attempt has been made in this contribution to highlight the important issues relating to women in management in the Indian context. The messages from a review of the literature are analysed. Research evidence from various sources is presented to highlight the dynamics of developments in the status of Indian women managers. The contribution discusses the main aspects of the historical, socio-cultural and economic factors influencing women managers: issues concerning gender-based stereotypes; the main barriers to women's movement to top managerial positions; the impact of developments in information technology (IT) on women managers; and the way forward. Results from two research projects are also presented. The analysis has important messages for practitioners and contributes to women's studies and management in the Indian context.     

Violence against women and new venture initiation with microcredit: Self-efficacy,fear of failure,and disaster experiences

Domestic violence is the most prevalent form of gender-based violence that threatens the wellbeing and dignity of women. In this paper, we examine whether and how exposure to physical or sexual assault by male partners influences women's decision to initiate a new business when they have access to financing. We collected primary data from rural Bangladesh in collaboration with a microfinance institution that provided small collateral-free loans to a group of married women. We conducted a baseline survey before loan disbursement and then conducted a follow-up survey 12 to 15 months later to collect information on loan usage. We find that women who experienced physical or sexual violence by their husband before receiving a loan are less likely to initiate a new business with their loan than those who did not experience such violence. Exposure to domestic violence obstructs the initiation of new businesses through reduced entrepreneurial self-efficacy and increased fear of business failure. The adverse impact of domestic violence is more detrimental for women who recently experienced another potentially traumatic event—an environmental disaster—than for those without such an experience.     

Discovering India's three levels of luxury consumption: An exploratory research to find a conceptual framework

Luxury marketing research has moved from functional product attributes to a ‘democratized’ view in emerging economies. This seems to be based on the development of interactive and digital communications. Luxury research studies have historically focused on the brand's and marketer's perspectives. Thus, little attention has been given to the consumer's view of what we consider to be the individual drivers, i.e., the ‘inner and outer self’ and how that impacts luxury consumption. This paper presents a framework of luxury and self, using concepts such as interdependent or outer, independent or inner, and a new concept of ‘digital self’. These appear as three levels of luxury consumption, i.e., conspicuous, individual, and interactive. The interdependent self is influenced by the external motives and leads to conspicuous luxury behavior. Individual self is affected by internal motives and thus influences individual luxury consumption. Digital self affects the networks of motive and relationships and thereby impacts interactive luxury consumption and behavior.     

Playing with class: Middle‐class intensive mothering and the consumption of children's toys in Vietnam

This article explores the way in which Vietnamese mothers purchase, gift and share toys with their children. The study utilises a qualitative design comprising semi‐structured interviews with 10 Vietnamese middle‐class professional working mothers of children aged between 5 and 9. This research highlights the way in which toys defined as “good” by mothers need to fulfil a number of important practical and social functions: they act as an investment in the child's future, as a reward, and as a means for mothers to buy time for themselves. The findings illustrate how these functions are influenced by Confucian and Western discourses of intensive mothering, generating a localized style of middle‐class intensive mothering, characterized by what we have called the ideal of the triple excellent and intensive mother.     

Extending the diversity conversation: Fashion consumption experiences of underrepresented and underserved women

This research brings in the voice of underserved and underrepresented women of various racial or ethnic origins and social classes, who have differing buying powers, sexual orientations, body shapes, and physical appearances, into the conversation of fashion diversity. Through a qualitative inquiry with 38 semi-structured in-depth interviews, the researchers analyzed the consumption experiences of diverse women to expose what the fashion scene is lacking. The study's main contribution is the depiction of overlooked diversity categories in fashion, such as the non-White and non-Black women of color, women of average sizes, and women with characteristics that the fashion industry has long seen as flaws. For women's physical and psychological well-being, the authors of this study hope to lead fashion producers and researchers into a new era of diversity and minimize certain consumer groups' exclusion through discrimination, isolation, and segregation.     

Understanding responses to comedic advertising aggression: the role of vividness and gender identity

As the use of comedic aggression in advertising has become more frequent, questions about the boundary conditions of its effectiveness become more important. Issues related to the vividness of the aggression, unique audience responses, and legitimacy of the aggression are examined here as potential influences on the impact of comedic advertising aggression. Two experiments are reported that explore how reactions to comedic advertising aggression are influenced by components of vividness (concreteness – aggressive intensity, emotional interest – psychological distance), the audience's gender identity, and whether the aggression was provoked and justified. Feminine identity individuals in close psychological situations react quite negatively to advertising using the highest level of comedic aggression while masculine identity individuals actually prefer the most vivid aggression in some conditions. The response patterns become different for feminine and masculine identity individuals when the aggression is unprovoked and therefore less justified. The results provide guidance about the limits of using comedic advertising aggression.     

Gender,generation and sustainable consumption: Exploring the behaviour of consumers from Izmir,Turkey

This study investigates the relationship between consumers’ sustainable consumption behaviour and both gender and generation‐related individual differences in a sample of Turkish consumers. A total of 393 participants from different generations and gender took part in the study. To measure sustainable consumption behaviour, we used four‐dimensional sustainable consumption behaviour scale. The results showed that generation is associated with unneeded consumption as a dimension of sustainable consumption behaviour. Consumers who are Baby Boomers found to have the highest level of unneeded consumption behaviour while Gen‐Zers have fewest. Additionally, data supported the association between gender and sustainable consumption behaviour. Women showed a higher level of sustainable consumption behaviour both in overall behaviour and tendency to reuse products. Taken together, the findings suggest that gender and generation of consumers can differentiate sustainable consumption behaviour. The implications of these findings, as well as the limitations and future directions, are also discussed.     

Sexual Issues: The Analysis of Female Role Portrayal Preferences in Taiwanese Print Ads

For a long time, female endorsers in advertising have been doing product information promotion in the market. However, with more and more highly educated women participating in the labor force, the conception of feminist depictions in advertising have become a perplexing issue. The traditional female role portrayals or stereotypes of the past are not able to totally reflect the expectations, behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of contemporary women. The author collected print ads as data from three types of the highest circulation magazines: foreign women’s magazines (Chinese edition), domestic women’s magazines, and domestic management magazines subscribed to in Taiwan to investigate what were the favorite feminine patterns and feminist depictions in a traditionally masculine society. The results showed classical beauty and girl-next-door images were “acceptable” gender-role behavior exposed highly in domestic magazines, which might contribute to conservative Confucian beliefs. On the other hand, being trendy was a significantly high preference for contemporary feminist depictions in foreign women's magazines; it might be considered as being due to the increased educational level of women and female labor participation rate in the work place as well as upgrading of social status.     

Antecedents and consequences of consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the performance of apparel products at purchase and after consumption: a comparison of male and female South Korean consumers

The purpose of the study is to investigate antecedents and consequences of consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CS/D) with the performance of apparel products at purchase, and after consumption, for male and female South Korean consumers. An experimental research technique with a 2 × 2 × 2 between‐subjects factorial design with gender (female, male), expectation for future performance, (high, low) and perception of product consumption performance (good, poor) was used. Both similarities and differences between genders were found. Implications and applications of results are discussed.