A unified systems perspective of family firm performance

Theory and practice indicate that in family-influenced firms, the interaction of the family unit, the business entity, and individual family members create unique systemic conditions and constituencies that impact the performance outcomes of the family business social system. Habbershon and Williams [Fam. Bus. Rev. 12 (1999) 1] have suggested that these unique systemic family influences can be captured through an analysis of the resources and capabilities of the organization. In this paper, we pursue their line of thinking and more specifically examine the systemic relationship of resources and capabilities as a source of advantage or constraint to the performance outcomes for family-influenced firms. The idiosyncratic firm level bundle of resources and capabilities resulting from the systems interactions are referred to as the “familiness” of the firm. Wealth-creating performance for family-influenced firms is a function of the “distinctive familiness” generated by the family business system. The performance model focuses on a particular subset of family-influenced firms whose performance goal is transgenerational wealth and wealth creation potential. We refer to those families that meet this premise as “enterprising families.” We develop a unified systems model of performance that links the resources and capabilities generated in the enterprising families system with their potential for transgenerational wealth creation.     

MULTIPLICATIVE APPROXIMATION OF WEALTH PROCESSES INVOLVING NO‐SHORT‐SALES STRATEGIES VIA SIMPLE TRADING

A financial market model with general semimartingale asset–price processes and where agents can only trade using no‐short‐sales strategies is considered. We show that wealth processes using continuous trading can be approximated very closely by wealth processes using simple combinations of buy‐and‐hold trading. This approximation is based on controlling the proportions of wealth invested in the assets. As an application, the utility maximization problem is considered and it is shown that optimal expected utilities and wealth processes resulting from continuous trading can be approximated arbitrarily well by the use of simple combinations of buy‐and‐hold strategies.     

Does money matter?: Wealth attainment as the motive for initiating growth-oriented technology ventures

The desire to attain personal wealth has long been regarded as the foremost motive for entrepreneurship. Other goals and values, however, may also contribute to entrepreneurial motivation. Thus, the extent to which money matters relative to other motives is an empirical question. In this study we examine the role of wealth as the motive for the decision to found new ventures. Three focal questions guide our research: 1) does money matter more relative to other decision dimensions in deciding to start a new high-technology venture? 2) does money matter more to entrepreneurs compared to non-entrepreneurs? and 3) does money matter in absolute terms, that is, does a decision model that focuses solely on the motive of wealth attainment parsimoniously predict entrepreneurs' start-up decisions?We conducted in-depth interviews with 51 entrepreneurs and a control group of 28 senior managers who decided not to start ventures (non-entrepreneurs) in the high-technology industry in British Columbia to address our research questions. The motives we examined are wealth attainment and an aggregate of other dimensions identified by entrepreneurs and managers. We considered three components of values: participants' ratings of the importance of various decision dimensions, their rating of the salience of these dimensions, and their satisfaction with prior levels of attainment on those decision dimensions. We assessed beliefs as participants' perceived probability of attaining their desired level of a particular decision dimension in each of three alternatives: the position held at the time the venture decision was made, the venture itself, and the next best career alternative at that time. The data were analyzed to compare entrepreneurs' values and beliefs regarding wealth with an aggregate of other decision dimensions (our relative hypotheses), and with those of non-entrepreneurs (our comparative hypotheses).Our findings do not support the common perception that money is the only, or even the most important, motive for entrepreneurs' decisions to start new ventures. Wealth attainment was significantly less important to entrepreneurs relative to an aggregate of 10 other decision dimensions, and entrepreneurs did not rate wealth as any more important than did non-entrepreneurs. Non-entrepreneurs rated wealth as no more important than other motives. Wealth attainment was also significantly less salient to entrepreneurs' decisions to venture than were other motives. Non-entrepreneurs reported that wealth was significantly more salient to their decision against founding a venture than other dimensions. In fact, non-entrepreneurs rated wealth attainment as significantly more salient to their decision against founding than entrepreneurs rated it for their decision to proceed with starting a high-technology business. A significant number of entrepreneurs started businesses even when they believed that doing so offered them a lower probability of obtaining their most desired level of wealth than did one of their other alternatives.Satisfaction ratings and stated beliefs also dispute classical predictions. Just prior to making the decision to venture, the entrepreneurs in our study were as satisfied with wealth as they were with other decision dimensions. The non-entrepreneurs were actually more satisfied with wealth attainment than with other dimensions. A comparison of the groups revealed no difference in satisfaction with wealth attainment levels. Entrepreneurs did believe that their chances of attaining their desired level of wealth were much greater through founding a new high-technology venture than through their other alternatives. This difference in beliefs, however, was not significantly greater than their optimistic beliefs about chances of attaining desired levels of other dimensions. It was significantly higher compared to the non-entrepreneurs' belief difference measures for wealth. In fact, the entrepreneurs' stated beliefs regarding the chances of attaining their desired levels of all dimensions were higher than those of the non-entrepreneurs, suggesting that entrepreneurs were simply more optimistic at the time of their decision than non-entrepreneurs.Salience findings suggest that these optimistic beliefs about wealth did not motivate the founding decision alone.We can distinguish those people who successfully started ventures by their regard for wealth as a less salient factor, and their beliefs in higher chances of a venture producing monetary and other returns. Other motives, such as innovation, vision, independence, and challenge were more important and much more salient to this sample of entrepreneurs.Our findings have implications for practice, teaching, and research. Venture capitalists who partially base their assessment of entrepreneurs on the extent to which they are motivated to make a great deal of money may benefit from reconsideration of this criterion. We have evidence of one group of high-technology entrepreneurs who achieved success without placing much decision weight on attainment of personal wealth. Nascent entrepreneurs and those who teach entrepreneurship can use this empirical finding to argue two main points: 1) not all entrepreneurs found a business for personal wealth reasons, and 2) one need not be motivated by personal wealth attainment to be a successful entrepreneur. Similarly, theoretical models that assume money is the primary motive for entrepreneurial activity require re-examination. Future research in entrepreneurship should focus less on wealth attainment and more on other motives for the venturing decision. A multiple-attribute decision model may be able to more fully explain venturing decisions.     

CEO's Total Wealth Characteristics and Implications on Firm Risk

We study the connections between firm risk and the CEO's personal wealth characteristics, using a unique dataset on CEO wealth and its components. Consistent with decreasing absolute risk aversion, we find that wealthier CEOs are associated with higher risk firms. Riskier firms tend to have CEOs whose wealth is more independent of the firm. We also find that CEOs with high personal portfolio betas run firms with higher betas. CEO's tenure is negatively associated with firm risk measured either as beta, idiosynchratic risk, or volatility of accounting profitability. A possible interpretation is that risk‐averse managers are better able to imprint their risk preferences on the firm over time. Stronger corporate governance weakens the connection between CEO wealth characteristics and firm risk.     

POWER UTILITY MAXIMIZATION IN CONSTRAINED EXPONENTIAL LÉVY MODELS

We study power utility maximization for exponential Lévy models with portfolio constraints, where utility is obtained from consumption and/or terminal wealth. For convex constraints, an explicit solution in terms of the Lévy triplet is constructed under minimal assumptions by solving the Bellman equation. We use a novel transformation of the model to avoid technical conditions. The consequences for q‐optimal martingale measures are discussed as well as extensions to nonconvex constraints.     

HEDGING AND PORTFOLIO OPTIMIZATION UNDER TRANSACTION COSTS: A MARTINGALE APPROACH12

We derive a formula for the minimal initial wealth needed to hedge an arbitrary contingent claim in a continuous-time model with proportional transaction costs; the expression obtained can be interpreted as the supremum of expected discounted values of the claim, over all (pairs of) probability measures under which the “wealth process” is a supermartingale. Next, we prove the existence of an optimal solution to the portfolio optimization problem of maximizing utility from terminal wealth in the same model, we also characterize this solution via a transformation to a hedging problem: the optimal portfolio is the one that hedges the inverse of marginal utility evaluated at the shadow state-price density solving the corresponding dual problem, if such exists. We can then use the optimal shadow state-price density for pricing contingent claims in this market. the mathematical tools are those of continuous-time martingales, convex analysis, functional analysis, and duality theory.     

A new perspective on “the new rule”of the current account

In an influential series of contributions, Kraay and Ventura (2000, 2003) offer a “new rule” for the current account: in response to a temporary income shock, the change in the current account is equal to the change in saving times the ratio of net foreign assets to wealth. We analyze the impact of a temporary income shock on the current account in the context of a two-country dynamic general equilibrium model of portfolio choice and show that the new rule does not hold. We also show that the cross-section evidence reported by Kraay and Ventura in favor of the new rule is a feature implied by the steady state of the model that is conceptually distinct from the new rule. We argue that the new rule could only hold in a model with one-way capital flows (only inflows or outflows, but not both), a feature that is strongly counterfactual.     

中国房地产财富效应测度的实证研究

中国居民的财富特征与发达国家居民的财富特征明显不同。利用中国1996—2007年房地产价格和居民消费的季度数据,建立房地产财富效应模型,对中国房地产财富效应进行测度,计算结果表明:随着中国经济增长和居民收入的增加,房地产财富对居民消费的影响不断增强。房地产价格变化是居民消费增加的Granger原因,居民消费的增加是城镇居民可支配收入上升的Granger原因。无论从长期还是短期分析,中国房屋价格变动都会给居民消费带来财富效应。通过脉冲响应函数分析可知,房地产价格的正向冲击将对居民消费产生正效应,导致居民消费增加,从而验证了中国房地产财富效应的存在。     

家庭财富与城镇居民创业行为研究

企业家创业活动在经济和社会发展中发挥着重要作用,本文从家庭财富的视角研究我国城镇居民的创业问题。利用CHIPS2008年数据研究发现:家庭财富越多,城镇居民选择创业的概率越高,即创业过程中存在流动性约束。通过选取更为外生的财富衡量指标以及引入工具变量两种方法缓解潜在的内生性问题后,研究结论依旧稳健。进一步区分财富对不同类型创业活动的异质性影响发现,财富显著提高了城镇居民选择“自雇型”创业的概率,但对选择“雇主型”创业影响较小或不存在显著的影响。考虑到截面数据对财富与创业行为关系的识别可能存在一定的局限性,本文进一步引入CFPS面板数据,利用面板固定效应模型对两者之间的关系进行稳健性检验。本文的研究结论可为政府优化金融环境,缓解信贷约束,促进居民创业行为提供依据。     

The Intergenerational Propagation of Wealth Inequality

This paper highlights the crucial role of demographic assumptions in models of the intergenerational transmission of wealth inequality. Specifically, we show that Alan Blinder's surprising predictions that bequest and mating practices can sustain but cannot cause wealth inequality are extremely fragile. We show that these predictions depend on a common and apparently minor demographic assumption: fixed sex ratios in family composition. We implement the Blinder model as an agent‐based simulation and show that without this demographic assumption such familial institutions are causative for wealth inequality, even in the long run.     

A Behavioral Life-Cycle Approach to Understanding the Wealth Effect

The somewhat surprising strength in consumer spending in recent years has focused renewed attention on the much-debated wealth effect, the notion that when individuals feel wealthier, they consume more. This study utilizes survey data to examine the wealth effect within the context of the behavioral life-cycle model of savings. The results indicate that the likelihood of households spending more when their assets increase in value decreases with the portion of assets held in home equity. This unexpected finding is due to homeowners responding to the perceived wealth gain from increased home values by cashing out their equity. The likelihood increases with the portion of assets held in stock outside of retirement accounts, but is not significantly related to the portion of assets held in stock overall. Moreover, households that have a full-time income earner, are homeowners, have more education, have a younger household head, or expect economic growth, are more likely to report a wealth effect. Households that utilize savings “rules of thumb” are less likely to report a wealth effect. These results can be used to improve the wealth effect specification in consumer demand models and assist firms to target consumer markets.     

DEFAULT AND SYSTEMIC RISK IN EQUILIBRIUM

We develop a finite horizon continuous time market model, where risk‐averse investors maximize utility from terminal wealth by dynamically investing in a risk‐free money market account, a stock, and a defaultable bond, whose prices are determined via equilibrium. We analyze the endogenous interaction arising between the stock and the defaultable bond via the interplay between equilibrium behavior of investors, risk preferences and cyclicality properties of the default intensity. We find that the equilibrium price of the stock experiences a jump at default, despite that the default event has no causal impact on the underlying economic fundamentals. We characterize the direction of the jump in terms of a relation between investor preferences and the cyclicality properties of the default intensity. We conduct a similar analysis for the market price of risk and for the investor wealth process, and determine how heterogeneity of preferences affects the exposure to default carried by different investors.     

PRIMITIVE ACCUMULATION,GROWTH AND THE GENESIS OF SOCIAL CLASSES

The aim of this paper is to show that inequalities of wealth can be necessary conditions to explain the apparition and rise of a capitalistic system. We try to highlight Marx's insights on primitive accumulation. Our dynamic framework is consistent with Roemer's idea of endogenous class stratification. We extend this calculation by incorporating some features of the Pasinetti–Samuelson–Modigliani model, and provide an example of possible microfoundations.     

创业过程中财富创造影响因素研究

财富创造是创业过程开展的目的,也是创业研究的焦点。为了洞悉影响财富创造的内在机理,揭示影响财富创造的更深层次的因素,本文围绕创业过程中作用于财富创造的机会、资源与战略,梳理和评述其对财富创造的影响;并在此基础上,通过进一步深化财富创造与三因素间内在逻辑关系的理解,构建出财富创造与影响因素间的逻辑关系模型。     

ROBUST PORTFOLIOS AND WEAK INCENTIVES IN LONG‐RUN INVESTMENTS

When the planning horizon is long, and the safe asset grows indefinitely, isoelastic portfolios are nearly optimal for investors who are close to isoelastic for high wealth, and not too risk averse for low wealth. We prove this result in a general arbitrage‐free, frictionless, semimartingale model. As a consequence, optimal portfolios are robust to the perturbations in preferences induced by common option compensation schemes, and such incentives are weaker when their horizon is longer. Robust option incentives are possible, but require several, arbitrarily large exercise prices, and are not always convex.     

家庭债务的变动与居民消费的过度敏感性:来自中国的证据

通过引入家庭债务变量对LC-PIH模型进行扩展,并运用动态最小二乘(DOLS)方法、误差修正模型、暂时性—持久性因子分解和脉冲响应进行实证分析,结果表明:家庭债务、收入和财富的持久性变动对消费存在显著的促进效应,收入的持久性变动影响最大,其后依次为财富和家庭债务;不同于传统分析框架的结论,不但财富的持久性变动会影响消费,其暂时性变动也会影响消费,但收入的暂时性变动对消费的影响并不显著;在家庭债务和财富的持久性和暂时性变动共同作用下,消费变动更为剧烈。因此,政策当局一方面要稳步提升居民预期收入水平,完善消费信贷的相关政策,以推动消费的稳步增长;另一方面还应密切关注家庭负债水平,以防范家庭过度负债而可能引发的债务收缩,导致消费的大幅下滑。     

MEAN–VARIANCE PORTFOLIO OPTIMIZATION WITH STATE‐DEPENDENT RISK AVERSION

The objective of this paper is to study the mean–variance portfolio optimization in continuous time. Since this problem is time inconsistent we attack it by placing the problem within a game theoretic framework and look for subgame perfect Nash equilibrium strategies. This particular problem has already been studied in Basak and Chabakauri where the authors assumed a constant risk aversion parameter. This assumption leads to an equilibrium control where the dollar amount invested in the risky asset is independent of current wealth, and we argue that this result is unrealistic from an economic point of view. In order to have a more realistic model we instead study the case when the risk aversion depends dynamically on current wealth. This is a substantially more complicated problem than the one with constant risk aversion but, using the general theory of time‐inconsistent control developed in Björk and Murgoci, we provide a fairly detailed analysis on the general case. In particular, when the risk aversion is inversely proportional to wealth, we provide an analytical solution where the equilibrium dollar amount invested in the risky asset is proportional to current wealth. The equilibrium for this model thus appears more reasonable than the one for the model with constant risk aversion.     

Shortfall aversion

Shortfall aversion reflects the higher utility loss of spending cuts from a reference than the utility gain from similar spending increases. Inspired by Prospect Theory's loss aversion and the peak‐end rule, this paper posits a model of utility from spending scaled by past peak spending. In contrast to traditional models, which call for spending rates proportional to wealth, the optimal policy in this model implies a constant spending rate equal to the historical peak when wealth is relatively large. The spending rate increases when wealth reaches a model‐determined multiple of peak spending. In 1926–2015, shortfall‐averse spending is smooth and typically increasing.     

MONOTONICITY PROPERTIES OF OPTIMAL INVESTMENT STRATEGIES FOR LOG-BROWNIAN ASSET PRICES

Consider the geometric Brownian motion market model and an investor who strives to maximize expected utility from terminal wealth. If the investor's relative risk aversion is an increasing function of wealth, the main result in this paper proves that the optimal demand in terms of the total wealth invested in a given risky portfolio at any date is decreasing in absolute value with wealth. The proof depends on the functional form of the Brunn–Minkowski inequality due to Prékopa.     

Does Student Loan Debt Contribute to Racial Wealth Gaps? A Decomposition Analysis

There is evidence of a large and growing student debt burden over the last decade. Previous research has shown that the presence of student debt jeopardized the short‐term financial wealth of U.S. households during the Great Recession. We examine the effects of student loan use on the wealth of U.S. households post‐recession, using recent data from the 2013 and 2016 Survey of Consumer Finances. We find that mean 2016 wealth for households with no outstanding student debt is more than four times higher than households with student debt. We find that living in a household at the 15th, 30th, 50th, 70th, and 85th percentile of the wealth distribution with student debt is associated with an 80%, 49%, 37%, 35%, and 36% wealth loss compared with a similar household with no student debt. Our decomposition results suggest that student loan use can explain between 3% and 7% of the Black‐White wealth gap across the wealth distribution but is insignificant in explaining the Hispanic‐White wealth gap.