Regulatory Capture: A Review

This article reviews both the theoretical and empirical literatureson regulatory capture. The scope is broad, but utility regulationis emphasized. I begin by describing the Stigler–Peltzmanapproach to the economics of regulation. I then open the blackbox of influence and regulatory discretion using a three-tierhierarchical agency model under asymmetric information (in thespirit of Laffont and Tirole, 1993). I discuss alternative modellingapproaches with a view to a richer set of positive predictions,including models of common agency, revolving doors, informationallobbying, coercive pressure, and influence over committees.I discuss empirical work involving capture and regulatory outcomes.I also review evidence on the revolving-door phenomenon andon the impact that different methods for selecting regulatorsappear to have on regulatory outcomes. The last section containsopen questions for future research. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: dalbo{at}haas.berkeley.edu     

Regulatory Policy: OECD Experience and Evidence

In the past 20 years a key topic of public-sector reform inOECD countries has been the emergence of regulatory policy.During this period, the nature of regulation has undergone profoundand rapid change. This paper reviews the development of regulatorypolicy in OECD countries over the last quarter-century. It identifiesa range of tools and institutions that have been used by OECDcountries to develop high-quality regulation. The analysis attemptsto show that while there is considerable commonality on broadobjectives of regulatory policy, considerably diversity remainsin the implementation of regulatory policy across OECD countries. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: nikolai.malyshev{at}oecd.org     

Regulation by Prices, Quantities, or Both: A Review of Instrument Choice

Choosing appropriate policy instruments is an important partof successful regulation. Once objectives are agreed and suitabletargets adopted, policy-makers can employ command-and-controlregulation and/or economic instruments, and choose between fixinga price or a quantity. This paper examines the relative advantagesof price, quantity, and hybrid instruments according to: theirefficiency under uncertainty; the trade-off between crediblecommitment and flexibility; implementation; international considerations;and political economy. Various illustrations of the theory areprovided, with two detailed applications to climate change andtransport policy, specifically congestion and ‘safetypricing’. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: cameron.hepburn{at}economics.ox.ac.uk     

Measuring and Managing the Costs of Red Tape: A Review of Recent Policy Developments

Over the last few years, red tape has come to be identifiedas an important policy area, and there has been rapid and relativelywidespread adoption—in one form or another—of aDutch-developed set of reforms aimed at significantly reducingthe costs of compliance with government-imposed obligationsto provide information (which have come to be referred to as‘administrative burdens’). This paper begins byexamining the characteristics of the policy problems that thesereforms are intended to address, and highlighting some of thechallenges that the reforms can be expected to face. The Dutch-developedapproach, and the UK adaptation of it, are then described, andspecific ways in which the reforms have sought to influenceinformation and incentive conditions—so as to generatereductions in administrative burdens—are assessed. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: tim.keyworth{at}rpieurope.org     

Network Regulation

This paper assesses how price regulation for energy, water,telecommunications, and rail networks has developed in the twodecades since incentive regulation was introduced. Regulationis necessary because Coasean bargaining is unlikely to produceefficient outcomes, and because the consumer and the firm haverelationship-specific capital and are unable to write long-termcontracts. Incentive regulation has been successful at promotingoperating efficiency in the UK and elsewhere. Incentive regulationhas, so far, also been successful at promoting investment, butsome challenges remain for regulators and policy-makers. Therelationship between the required cost of capital and the extentto which prices are allowed to track costs is explored, andthe implications of the recent large increases in debt-to-equityratios for regulation is discussed. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: simon.cowan{at}economics.oxford.ac.uk     

Redesigning Regulation of Pensions and Other Financial Products

We observe that financial regulation is ever-growing, with thelatest area to experience increased supervisory attention beingpensions. Yet this has not made the financial world or consumerssafer, and for pensions in particular there are unexpected andundesired consequences. We explore the current policy approachto supervision, which is ‘bottom up’, i.e. assessmentand regulation of individual institutions, with the aim ofmakingthe financial system safe by making each institution safe. Weshow that this is both damaging (because it stifles innovation)and does not work (because risk will always be squeezed fromthe regulated institutions to the less regulated and less seen).Instead, we advocate a ‘top-down’ approach, whichfocuses on making the system safe first. We conclude that onceyou have made systems safe, detailed supervision of individualinstitutions is less necessary, thus reducing the burden ofsupervision. We believe that this approach will lead to a moresuitable and diverse treatment of different risks that willincrease both systemic and consumer safety. ‘If you haveten thousand regulations you destroy all respect for the law’,Winston Churchill (1931). ‘The ultimate result of shieldingmen from the effects of folly is to fill the world with fools’,Herbert Spencer (1891). Footnotes ¹ E-mail addresses: n.barr{at}lse.ac.uk; john_nugee{at}ssga.com     

The Swedish Experience with Pension Reform

Sweden is one of few countries in Europe to have introduceda comprehensive pension reform. In 1998, Sweden passed legislationthat transformed its public pension system to a notional defined-contribution(NDC) plan— that is, a defined-contribution plan financedon a pay-as-you-go basis. In addition, a second tier of fundedindividual accounts was introduced. The reform had broad politicalsupport with more than 80 per cent of the votes in parliament.This paper discusses the trends in retirement in Sweden andassesses the experience with pension reform. The objective wasto design a fiscally sustainable system tied to economic growthwith a clear link between contributions and benefits. We discussthe challenges in meeting this goal, the extent to which theSwedish reform has succeeded, and how the system affects beneficiaries.The paper evaluates the experience of the individual fundedaccounts to date and concludes with an outlook for the future. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: annika.sunden{at}sofi.su.se     

Will Social Welfare Expenditures Survive Tax Competition?

Increasing economic openness creates demands for social welfareprogrammes designed to cushion the impact of economic changes,but may also encourage governments to reduce tax rates to attractmobile economic resources. Competitive tax reductions couldthen prevent governments from being able to finance significantwelfare spending. Alternatively, economic globalization mightimprove the ability of governments to afford social welfareprogrammes—and several considerations point in this direction.First, taxes on internationally mobile activity represent onlysmall fractions of total revenue collections; personal incometaxes, value-added taxes, and social insurance contributionsfinance most social welfare spending. Second, internationalcompetition need not reduce taxes, and indeed, over the past25 years, corporate tax collections have remained high as fractionsof GDP and total taxes. Third, the vitality of a country's economylargely determines its level of social spending. To the extentthat incomes rise as a result, greater economic openness shouldstrengthen provision of social welfare. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: jrhines{at}umich.edu     

Regulation and Productivity Performance

The paper reviews theory and evidence on the ways in which regulationaffects productivity outcomes. In a context of endogenous growth,it is argued that traditional measures of compliance costs missthe potentially most important impacts of regulation on productivitywhich occur through changes in incentives to invest and to innovate.Recent attempts to measure cross-country variations in the strengthof product-market and employment regulation are considered andsome weaknesses are highlighted. Nevertheless, consistent withendogenous growth models, there appears to be quite strong evidencethat regulations which inhibit entry into product markets havean adverse effect on TFP growth in OECD countries. Althoughthere are some discrepancies in the evidence, on most measuresthe UK appears lightly regulated relative to France and Germany,and this may have contributed to a reduction in the recent pastin the UK's TFP gap. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: n.crafts{at}warwick.ac.uk     

Management Practices, Work--L ife Balance, and Productivity: A Review of Some Recent Evidence

Increasing product-market competition is believed to be a drivingforce behind higher productivity. However, even those criticsof globalization who accept this argument claim that there isa hard trade-off because tougher competition comes at the priceof reducing work—life balance (WLB). Optimists, by contrast,argue that competition can spur better WLB practices and thereforehigher productivity, so there is a ‘win—win’situation. To address this issue we use an innovative surveytool to collect the first international data on management practicesand WLB practices, surveying 732 medium-sized manufacturingfirms in the USA, France, Germany, and the UK. We find thatthe USA has the best management practices but the worst work—lifebalance. When we look within countries, however, we reject thepessimistic ‘trade-off’ model. First, WLB outcomesare significantly associated with better management, so thatwell-run firms are both more productive and offer better conditionsfor their employees. Second, tougher competition increases averagemanagement quality but does not negatively affect employees'working environment. As with many other studies, better WLBpractices are associated with significantly higher productivity.This relationship disappears, however, after controlling forthe overall quality of management. Footnotes ¹ E-mail addresses: nbloom{at}stanford.edu; j.vanreenen{at}lse.ac.uk     

The Generosity of Social Insurance, 1971-2002

International comparisons of national social policy rely overwhelminglyon programme spending ratios. However, there are widespreadproblems with this type of data as an indicator of trends insocieties' commitments to social protection. This paper suggestsan alternative approach to understanding social commitmentsand introduces a new international data set of social insuranceprogrammes that is comprised of important characteristics ofthree types of public insurance: unemployment, sick pay, andpublic pensions. The data are available annually from the 1970sfor 18 OECD countries. Looking more closely at trends in twoprogramme characteristics, income replacement rates and programmecoverage, we develop an indicator of expected benefits. Accordingto this indicator, there is considerably more evidence of welfarestate retrenchment in recent years than most analyses of publicspending have suggested. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: lyle.scruggs{at}uconn.edu     

Sons, Daughters, and Parental Behaviour

The prevalence of son preference and its implications for familybehaviour in developing countries have received a great dealof scholarly attention, but child-gender bias is believed tobe empirically unimportant in wealthy, non-traditional societies.Studies by sociologists and psychologists during the past 30years, however, have documented consistent discrepancies betweenthe behaviour of parents of sons and parents of daughters—boystend to increase marital stability and marital satisfactionrelative to girls, and fathers spend more time with, and aremore involved with, sons than daughters. In recent years, economistshave begun to contribute to the child-gender literature, re-examiningthe effects of sons and daughters on family structure and parentalinvolvement with larger samples and greater concern for possiblesources of selection bias. Other economic outcomes, such asmarket work and earnings, have also been studied, and some investigatorshave exploited the randomness of child gender as a source ofexogenous variation in parental behaviour. In general, recentresults suggest that child gender does affect family stabilityand the time allocation of parents, but it is not clear whetherthese responses reflect parental preferences for boys ratherthan girls or differences in the constraints parents face. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: lundberg{at}u.washington.edu     

Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour-market Outcomes of Women across OECD Countries

This paper uses data from the World Value Surveys (1990, 1995,1999)to investigate the impact of gender role attitudes and workvalues on women's labour-market outcomes across 25 OECD countries.Anti-egalitarian views are found to display the strongest negativeassociation with female employment rates and the gender paygap. These views are, however, softening among recent cohorts.On the other hand, perceptions of women's role as homemakers,which are likely formed in youth and linked to religious ideology,are more persistent over time. They could be implicated in therecent slowdown of the gender convergence in pay. Finally, theunavoidable clash between family values and egalitarian views,that takes the form of an inner conflict for many women—theso-called ‘mother's guilt’—is another obstaclein the path towards greater gender equality in the labour market. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: nifortin{at}interchange.ubc.ca     

From Skills Revolution to Productivity Miracle--Not as easy as it Sounds?

This article surveys the potential impact of skill on productivity.It opens with a review of the utility of productivity as a measureof systemic economic performance, and then goes on to explorethe oft-assumed close and strong relationship between skillsand productivity. The importance of other factors and typesof investment is stressed. These complementary elements maybe at least as important as skill in boosting performance, andtheir absence may negate the impact of public investment ineducation and training. The ability of economic developmentpolicy, particularly as it relates to the Regional DevelopmentAgencies, to address skills and economic development is assessed,and questions are raised about what type and level of skillmight have the largest impact on economic performance. In conclusion,we discuss the demands that new policy approaches are makingupon the machinery and personnel of government. Footnotes ¹ E-mail addresses: keepej{at}cardiff.ac.uk; ken.mayhew{at}pmb.ox.ac.uk;paynej3{at}cardiff.ac.uk     

The Rationale for Occupational Pensions

Employers and employees have no incentive to include pensionsas part of employment contracts unless the pension completesa missing market, or ameliorates an imperfection in existingcapital or labour markets. We examine the influence on the choiceand design of occupational pensions of capital- and labour-marketimperfections. In capital markets, we focus on basis risks,taxation, employer default risks, transactions costs, portfoliorestrictions, and liquidity constraints. Aspects of labour marketsaffecting occupational pensions may be the presence of firm-specifichuman capital, asymmetric information between firms and potentialhires, the presence of moral hazard, and internal labour marketsin firms which cause employers to attempt to control the retirementbehaviour of workers. The implications of this analysis of occupationalpensions for public policy towards pensions are briefly examined. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: dg.mccarthy{at}imperial.ac.uk     

THE UK ECONOMY: ANALYSIS AND PROSPECTS

In this section of the Review, Oxford Economic Forecasting providesan analysis of the current economic climate in the UK and abroadas well as setting out the main features of its latest forecast.In Section II, the UK forecast up to 1988 is described. In SectionIII, following the theme of this issue, we analyse the roleof public investment in the UK. Footnotes ¹We are grateful to Vanessa Rossi for her helpful comments.     

Is Fiscal Policy Poised for a Comeback?

For several decades, discretionary fiscal policy has been indisrepute. Most economists viewed it as unnecessary, becausemonetary policy was up to the job of stabilizing the economy.Economists also viewed fiscal policy as too clumsy to deal withthe relatively short recessions that became the post-war norm.But the experience of Japan and the near-Japan experience ofthe United States in 2001–3 have renewed some of the oldcase for fiscal policy. Low-interest environments in which monetarypolicy becomes ineffective turn out to be a real danger, nota myth. Economic slumps that last for a number of years, offeringample time to implement fiscal expansion, also turn out to bepossible. As a result, the case for fiscal policy made by thefirst generation of Keynesians has experienced a real revival. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: pkrugman{at}princeton.edu     

The Assessment: Gender and the Life Cycle

This assessment is an introduction to the Oxford Review of EconomicPolicy's issue on gender and the life cycle. It sets the stageby providing background information on various dimensions ofgender differences, pointing out differences across countriesas well as over time, and relates this evidence to the papersthat follow. It further briefly reviews the articles in theissue and puts them into context. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: c.dustmann{at}ucl.ac.uk     

Us Retirement Income System

In the United States, retirement income is supplied throughthe combination of a relatively modest, contributory socialinsurance programme; employer-provided (increasingly definedcontribution savings) programmes; and individual retirementsavings. The public programme supplies the vast majority ofthe income of the poorer half of the aged population; only therichest 20 per cent receive more from employer plans than fromthe public programme. Projections show that the public programmewill have financial problems in the 2030s. Thereafter, revenueswould have to be increased by a third or benefits cut by a quarterto restore financial balance. Despite widespread angst aboutthe impact of longer lifespans and the retirement of the baby-boomgeneration, however, there is little serious discussion abouthow either the public- or private-sector programmes should beadjusted. In 2005, President Bush failed to generate significantpublic support for a plan partially to privatize the public-sectorprogramme. Footnotes ¹ E-mail address: lthompso{at}ui.urban.org