中国陆地边境地区耕地利用综合效率时空格局与影响因素

[目的]通过分析耕地利用综合效率的时空格局及影响因素,为促进边境地区农业可持续发展及保障粮食安全提供理论基础。[方法]文章通过构建耕地利用效率“投入—产出”指标体系,运用DEA模型、Malmquist指数模型及Tobit模型从动静两方面研究了中国陆地边境地区的耕地利用综合效率的时空格局变化及分区域影响因素。[结果]（1） 2008—2018年中国陆地边境地区耕地利用综合效率经历“小幅下降—快速上升—稳步上升”3个阶段,耕地利用综合效率高值区总体上呈“多点式”向“带片状”转变的态势,连片集聚度不断上升。（2）边境地区耕地利用全要素生产率指数（TFP）波动幅度较大,由2008—2014年的“倒V”型反转向2014—2018年的“V”型增长过渡。从全要素生产率指数结果来看,西南边境地区>西北边境地区>东北边境地区,这与各片区发展的资源禀赋、区域定位等差异有关。（3）东北边境地区耕地利用综合效率的显著性影响因素有农业机械总动力与农业劳动力,西北边境地区耕地利用综合效率的显著性影响因素有化肥施用量、种植结构调整、农业机械总动力,西南边境地区耕地利用综合效率影响因素为农村居民人均纯收入...     

常州地区耕地利用空间分异及影响因素分析

[目的]通过分析常州地区耕地总面积时空格局进行分析,并利用耕地区位指数模型测算各子区域耕地面积的空间差异,并在此基础上,分析常州地区耕地利用的影响因素。[方法]文章运用地理综合分析方法分析1985—2015年常州地区耕地利用空间分异;选取人口、社会、经济、环境、科技5方面共12个指标,分析常州地区耕地空间分异的影响因素。[结果]从常州地区耕地面积时间变化来看,1985—2015年常州地区耕地总面积整体呈现出递减趋势;从常州地区耕地面积空间变化来看,总体来说,常州南部地区(溧阳区)为耕地密集区,北部(新北、钟楼、天宁、武进)为耕地稀疏区;从影响因素的效用来看,经济因素的影响效用大,尤其是人均GDP和地均GDP的比重,而社会因素的影响较小,尤其是房屋竣工面积、公路里程。[结论]总体而言,受区域经济发展影响,常州地区耕地面积呈下降趋势,但近年来下降幅度已基本得到控制。     

中原经济区耕地压力时空演变及驱动因素研究

[目的]严守耕地红线、合理利用和保护耕地资源,保障国家粮食安全。[方法]文章采用最小人均耕地面积和耕地压力指数模型,分析了2007—2016年中原经济区耕地压力时序变化特征,引入重心转移模型和变异系数,探究耕地压力重心的空间分布及迁移特征,并基于粮食生产因素和社会经济因素双重视角,选取10个指标运用灰色关联分析法对影响中原经济区耕地压力变化的驱动因素进行研究。[结果]2007—2016年中原经济区耕地压力指数呈现阶段性特征,总体处于波动递减的趋势,各地级市耕地压力离散程度和空间差异不断拉大,空间分布不均衡,东西分化趋势显著;耕地压力重心从西北向东南方向迁移,在郑州市区域移动;选取的影响因素指标对耕地压力变化均有影响,关联度大小依次为人均GDP城市化水平农民收入产业结构化肥投入灌溉水平复种指数粮食单产量耕地质量人均耕地面积。[结论]社会经济因素对耕地压力影响显著,是影响耕地压力变动的主导因素。     

广西耕地“非粮化”时空演变及影响因素研究

[目的]防止耕地“非粮化”、稳定粮食生产是我国重要战略部署。探究广西耕地“非粮化”时空演变特征及其影响因素,为西南经济欠发达地区差异化管控和引导耕地利用提供参考。[方法]文章以广西为例,采用综合评价法对2003—2019年广西耕地“非粮化”水平进行综合测度,利用空间自相关模型进行耕地“非粮化”空间集聚效应分析,并运用地理加权回归模型进一步探究耕地“非粮化”区域差异的影响因素。[结果]（1）2003—2019年广西耕地“非粮化”程度总体呈波动上升趋势,共经历3个阶段。（2）广西耕地“非粮化”空间上整体呈现出“西南高—西北低”格局,并表现出显著空间正相关,“非粮化”现象以广西西南部崇左市最为突出。（3）耕地地势起伏度、年降水量、第一产业比重、土地生产率和城镇化率等8个因素是形成广西耕地“非粮化”空间格局差异的主要影响因素。[结论]耕地“非粮化”程度及其影响因素具有空间差异性,基于此制定差异化管控对策,对缓解耕地“非粮化”,促进耕地有效管护具有重要意义。     

干旱区内陆河流域农村居民点时空格局演变及影响因素

[目的]从宏观层面量化分析石羊河流域1987~2016年农村居民点空间分布格局、时空演变趋势、规模和形态结构,探究自然因素和社会经济因素对农村居民点分布变化的影响,以期为农村居民点整理提供参考依据。[方法]该文以1987年、2001年、2016年3期遥感影像目视解译提取的研究区农村居民点时空分布信息为数据源,并借助GIS空间统计分析技术、景观指数等研究方法。[结果]1987~2016年农村居民点整体空间分布格局未发生明显变化,呈低海拔、小坡度、近水系分布的空间特征,但局部集中趋势进一步加强,其中河流和城市周边是农村居民点集聚较明显的区域。农村居民点斑块复杂性减弱、破碎度降低,形态趋于规则,但由于斑块蔓延扩张引起的居民点斑块两极分化趋势加剧。农村居民点规模分异特征明显,呈小斑块高密度集聚与大斑块低密度分布的格局。[结论]石羊河流域农村居民点空间分布及演变是多种因素共同作用的结果,其中河流和地形对农村居民点分布变化的影响最为突出。     

吉林省耕地利用碳排放测度及其与粮食生产脱钩分析

[目的]通过分析吉林省县域耕地利用碳排放时空变化、碳排放结构、碳排放空间分布、脱钩效应以及碳排放驱动因素,以期从耕地低碳利用角度,为吉林省农业高质量发展和制定减排政策提供科学参考。[方法]文章运用系数法,计算2000—2020年吉林省47个县域单元的耕地利用碳排放量;采用Tapio脱钩模型,分析耕地利用碳排放与粮食产量之间的脱钩特征;利用空间回归模型,分析耕地利用碳排放的驱动因素。[结果]（1）吉林省县域耕地利用碳排放时空变化特征：2000—2016年吉林省耕地利用碳排放量增长,2016—2020年开始缓慢下降;碳排放结构方面,碳排放量从大到小分别是化肥、翻耕、灌溉、农用柴油、农膜和农药;碳排放空间分布呈现西高东低的格局。（2）耕地利用碳排放与粮食生产脱钩特征：呈现强脱钩和弱脱钩特征的县域数量增多,呈现强负脱钩和扩张性负脱钩特征的县域数量减少;吉林省东部地区的县域脱钩特征逐渐优于西部地区,吉林省整体县域的脱钩特征朝着理想状态发展。（3）耕地利用碳排放量驱动因素分析结果表明：人均农业GDP、农村用电量、农业机械化程度和化肥施用强度因素对耕地利用碳排放量为正向驱动,城镇化率对耕地利用碳排放...     

基于能值分析的沈阳市耕地利用可持续集约化时空分异特征研究

研究目的：测度2000—2019年沈阳市耕地利用可持续集约化水平的时空格局,为理解耕地利用可持续集约化的过程规律及响应机制,优化沈阳市耕地利用模式提供参考。研究方法：能值分析法。研究结果：（1）2000—2019年沈阳市耕地生态经济系统能值投入减少17.53%,能值输出增加89.19%。（2）2000—2019年,沈阳市耕地生态经济系统能值生产率（EPR）和能值产出率（EYR）分别增加129.40%、140.76%,各行政区均呈现波动上升的趋势,南高北低的空间差异逐渐缩小;环境负载率（ELR）呈“M”型波动增长,总体增加48.69%,北高南低的空间差异逐渐缩小;环境经济效率（EE）呈“W”型变化,总体下降15.38%,南高北低的空间格局没有发生明显变化。研究结论：2000—2019年,沈阳市耕地利用可持续集约化水平得到提高,自西北向东南先下降后上升的空间格局没有发生明显变化,应重点关注水稻种植对耕地利用可持续集约化的影响,合理调适社会经济系统的能值投入,促进耕地生态经济系统的科学利用和保护。     

贵州省县域农村贫困度时空变化分析

[目的]农村贫困程度的变化是一个动态变化的过程,动态、客观地监测农村贫困的时空变化对国家扶贫工作十分重要。[方法]文章利用DOSP/OLS夜光数据集构建的平均灯光指数ALI (Average light index,ALI)与社会经济数据构建的综合贫困指数IPI (Integrated Poerty Index,IPI)建立关系,进而估算2003—2018年贵州省县（区）域间综合贫困指数,分析农村贫困的时空格局演变。[结果]（1） ALI与IPI建立模型估算的IPI与真实的IPI拟合程度较好,R2超过了0.86,具有一定的准确性和科学性;（2）贵州省各县（区）域IPI指数的变异系数和泰尔指数在2003—2018年两者都有所增长,增长幅度分别为19.21%和2.38%,表明农村贫困度差异在逐渐增大。但贫困程度极高的县（区）域呈下降趋势,由2003年的65个减少到2018年的37个;（3）标准差椭圆分析表明贵州农村贫困程度整体呈现“东北—西南”的空间分布格局,椭圆覆盖面积和贫困化重心变化不大;（4）探索性空间数据分析显示,贵州各县（区）域农村贫困程度表现出显著的正相关,并存在较强的空间聚集...     

中国省际耕地利用生态效率时空格局演变及影响因素分析 ——基于2000—2019年面板数据

研究目的：探究全国大陆31个省（市、区）2000—2019年耕地利用生态效率时空变化特征,考察效率的影响因素。研究方法：超效率SBM模型、探索性空间数据分析法、核密度法、趋势面和地理加权回归（GWR）模型。研究结果：（1）2000—2019年,全国各省耕地利用生态效率范围由0.408~3.976缩小到 0.353~2.046,全国、东部、中部、西南和西北区域耕地利用生态效率均值均呈下降趋势,东北地区均高于全国水平且呈上升趋势;（2）31个省耕地利用生态效率在多个年份存在显著的空间负相关关系,效率高值区分布由西南方逐渐变为东北方向;（3）资源禀赋、经济发展水平、自然条件和生产条件均对耕地利用生态效率产生影响,但影响方向和程度在不同年份、不同区域有差异。研究结论：当前全国大部分区域耕地利用生态效率均呈下降趋势且分布不均,区域间存在较大差异,未来政府应强化相关政策工具应用、探索区域差异化路径、推动农户流转耕地和促进耕地规模经营,助推各地耕地利用生态效率的提高。     

典型江南山地丘陵区河岸带土地利用时空变化特征及其政策响应

[目的]以地处山地丘陵区的江西省万年县境内的五条主要河流河岸带为研究对象,通过研究丘陵山区河岸带土地利用时空变化特征,为当地政府开展国土空间规划、土地整治工程等提供科学参考,从而推动区域生态环境质量和社会经济福祉的协同提升。[方法]利用2000年、2009年和2018年3期Landsat遥感影像,借助遥感、地理信息系统技术,基于土地利用变化、景观生态学理论,分析了2000—2018年研究区土地利用时空分异特征。[结果]研究区内新增耕地面积主要来源一直是滩涂和其他用地,新增建设用地面积来源为耕地,新增建设用地主要分布在200～300m分带。景观格局方面,万年县河岸带0～100m段人为扰动程度低,仍然发挥着河岸带生态廊道的作用;100～300m土地利用多样化,是受人为扰动最剧烈的部分。[结论]研究认为,生态保护政策在河岸带土地利用变化上起到了一定作用。通过开垦常年性河流主干道河岸带范围内的滩涂来实现区域内的耕地占补平衡受到严格管控,山地丘陵区的特殊环境特征决定了在该类地区应探索其他的政策响应途径。     

Spatial–temporal changes in grain input–output and the driving mechanism in China since 1985

Based on Chinese county-level statistic data, this paper reveals spatial–temporal distribution and changing of grain production, by studying gravity centres of grain input–output regions in China from 1985 to 2009. According to the grain output, per-capita grain consumption, and population, the surplus grain of 2864 counties from 1985 to 2009 was calculated. And the counties with surplus grain value greater than zero and smaller than zero were respectively defined as grain input regions and grain output regions; they were respectively analysed by using the model of grain gravity centre. We found that there are four periods of spatial–temporal changing of gravity centres in grain input regions, and five periods in all output regions. According to the moving path of the gravity centres of input–output regions, 1990 was the turning point of completely entering into ‘grain supply from north to south period’. Spatial–temporal changing of grain-sown area and the arable land was the main driving mechanism for the shift in grain input–output gravity centres. The change of spatial pattern of grain production influenced sustainability of grain production from three impacts. And two policy suggestions are put forward to promote the sustainability of grain production.

HIGHLIGHTS

Use the method of gravity centres to research the spatial–temporal changing of surplus grain from 1985 to 2009 in China.

Analyse the spatial–temporal changing and the driving mechanism of gravity centres of grain input–output from 1985 to 2009 in China.

1990 was identified as the turning point of completely entering into ‘grain supply from north to south period’.

Summarize the impact of the changes of spatial pattern of grain production on the sustainability of grain production and put forward two proposals.     

Organic Consumption as a Change of Mind? Exploring Consumer Narratives Using a Structural Cognitive Approach

An innovative qualitative approach to analyze consumer narratives and biographies was applied to gain insight into consumer decision making and dynamic behavioral patterns in the purchase of organic foods. We adapted Gardner's (2004 Gardner , H. ( 2004 ). Changing minds: The art and science of changing our own and other people's minds. Cambridge , MA : Harvard Business School Press . [Google Scholar]) change-of-mind framework to organic food consumption. Regular consumers trust organic products because they believe that they are healthier and tastier than the equivalent nonorganic product. This belief is built upon day after day by their experiences and by word of mouth: a growing stock of information supports their food choice and confidence in organic food. Occasional consumers have strong beliefs about the better taste and the higher quality of organic food in general. The choice to (regularly) buy organic food is a matter of largely unnoticed inner development. The results allow us to draw some conclusions relating to the determinants of the future demand for organic food in Italy.     

Marketing and Pricing Dynamics in the Presence of Structural Breaks: The Hungarian Pork Market

The study of marketing margins and price transmission on various commodity markets has been a popular research topic of the past decades (see Meyer & Von Cramon-Taubadel, 2004 Meyer , J. , & Von Cramon-Taubadel , S. ( 2004 ). Asymmetric price transmission: A survey . Journal of Agricultural Economics , 55 ( 3 ), 581 – 611 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], for a recent survey). However, with a few exception these studies focused on developed economies. This article examines this phenomena on the Hungarian pork market. The Johansen (maximum likelihood, 1988 Johansen , S. ( 1988 ). Statistical analysis of cointegrating vectors . Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control , 12 , 231 – 254 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) or Engle and Granger (2-step, 1987 Engle , R. F. , & Granger , C. W. J. ( 1987 ). Cointegration and error correction: Representation, estimation and testing . Econometrica , 55 , 251 – 276 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) cointegration tests do not reject the no-cointegration null hypothesis between the Hungarian pork producer and retail price series. Therefore, we applied the Gregory and Hansen (1996 Gregory , A. W. , & Hansen , B. E. ( 1996 ). Residual-based tests for cointegration in models with regime shifts . Journal of Econometrics , 70 , 99 – 126 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) procedure with recursively estimated break points and Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) statistics and found that the prices are cointegrated with a structural break occurring in April 1996 Gregory , A. W. , & Hansen , B. E. ( 1996 ). Residual-based tests for cointegration in models with regime shifts . Journal of Econometrics , 70 , 99 – 126 .[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]. Exogeneity tests reveal the causality running from producer to retail prices both in the long and short run. Homogeneity tests are rejected, suggesting a markup pricing strategy. Price transmission modeling suggests that price transmission on the Hungarian pork meat market is symmetric in the long run but asymmetric in the short run; that is, processors, wholesalers, or retailers might take temporary advantage should price changes occur.     

Drivers to Nurturance: Application and Extension of FWB in India

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the factors influencing the choice of healthier foods in India through observation of 250 consumers in a feast arranged with most of the millet-based food items, followed by a focus group study of nine selected consumers from the feast. Although much of the work about healthier food choices have been done in the western countries, their replication is not possible for the Indian consumers due to the differences in perception, culture, and consumption patterns. This paper attempts to highlight the importance of indigenous culture of a land in influencing one’s food choice. The findings of the qualitative study match with the Food as Well Being (FWB) dimensions proposed by Block et al., 2011 Block, L. G., Grier, S. A., Childers, T. L., Davis, B., Ebert, J. E., Kumanyika, S., … &; Pettigrew, S. (2011). From nutrients to nurturance: A conceptual introduction to food well-being. Journal of Public Policy &; Marketing, 30(1), 5–13.[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]. Food perception emerged as another important factor from this study and furthermore an extended model of FWB is proposed for the Indian consumers.     

Spatial Integration in the Broiler Market in Peninsular Malaysia

The broiler sector in Peninsular Malaysia is marked by many structural elements of imperfect competition, particularly increasing vertical integration. This study adopts the Enders and Granger (1998 Enders , W. , & Granger , C. W. J. ( 1998 ). Unit root tests and asymmetric adjustment with an example using the term structure of interest rates . Journal of Business and Economic Statistics , 16 ( 3 ), 304 – 311 .[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) threshold autoregressive model to analyze market integration and pricing efficiency in the broiler sector. Results indicate that market integration exists in the broiler sector in spite of the structural rigidities that are present. However, asymmetries in price transmission are evident between the central market and regional wholesale markets.     

Maize-legume intercropping in central Malawi: determinants of practice

In Malawi, population growth has reduced opportunities for farmers to expand and cultivate new land. The country's primary farming population is comprised of smallholders, many who cultivate monocultures of maize (Zea mays). To reduce negative outcomes from this practice, intercropping maize with legumes has been promoted. The sustainable intensification (SI) practice was once widely used, but has declined in recent decades. Little is known about the determinants of intercropping or its role in agricultural development. The objective of this study was to examine the drivers of intercropping among smallholders. We used multiple logistic regression analysis to estimate the determinants of intercropping based on a survey of 324 households. Smallholders who sold legumes were more likely to intercrop, contrary to literature positing intercropping as a practice primarily intended to enhance food security. In addition, complementary SI practices such as fertilizer, manure and compost application were more likely to have occurred on intercropped fields relative to sole maize fields. Furthermore, smallholder farmers appeared to apply more fertilizer to their intercropped fields relative to their sole maize fields. The study highlights the value of including field-level characteristics and household socioeconomic survey data to understand farming practices as a means to inform agricultural policy.

Abbreviations: SI: sustainable intensification; MLI: maize-legume intercrop; DL: doubled-up legumes     

Analysing inefficiency in a non-parametric spatial-dynamic by-production framework: A k-nearest neighbour proposal

This paper accounts for spatial effects by benchmarking farms against their k-nearest neighbours (KNN) and measuring their inefficiency in a non-parametric dynamic by-production setting. The optimal number of neighbours $k$ against which farms are compared corresponds to the value of $k$ that maximises the Moran I test for spatial autocorrelation of the good and the bad output of the farms' two sub-technologies. The inefficiency scores for farms' good output, variable inputs, investments and bad outputs are then computed and compared with those calculated based on a global technology, which benchmarks all farms together. The application focuses on an unbalanced panel of specialised Dutch dairy farms over the period 2009–2016 that contains information on their exact geographical locations. The results suggest that the inefficiency scores exhibit statistically significant differences between the KNN and the global model. Specifically, the inefficiencies are generally deflated when a KNN technology is considered, suggesting that ignoring spatial effects can overestimate inefficiency.     

Land change in the Brazilian Savanna (Cerrado), 1986–2002: Comparative analysis and implications for land-use policy

The Brazilian Cerrado, a biodiverse savanna ecoregion covering 1.8 million km² south and east of the Amazon rainforest, is in rapid decline because of the expansion of modern agriculture. Previous studies of Cerrado land-use and land-cover (LULC) change imply spatial homogeneity, report widely varying rates of land conversion, use ambiguous LULC categories, and generally do not attempt to validate results. This study addresses this gap in the literature by analyzing moderate-resolution, multi-spectral satellite remote sensing data from 1986 to 2002 in two regions with identical underlying drivers. Unsupervised classification by the ISODATA algorithm indicates that Cerrado was converted to agro-pastoral land covers in 31% (3646 km²) of the study region in western Bahia and 24% (3011 km²) of the eastern Mato Grosso study region, while nearly 40% (4688 km² and 5217 km², respectively) of each study region remained unchanged. Although aggregate land change is similar, large and contiguous fragments persist in western Bahia, while smaller fragments remain in eastern Mato Grosso. These findings are considered in the current context of Cerrado land-use policy, which is dominated by the conservation set-aside and command-control policy models. The spatial characteristics of Cerrado remnants create considerable obstacles to implement the models; an alternative approach, informed by countryside biogeography, may encourage collaboration between state officials and farmer-landowners toward conservation land-use policies.     

Push—pull technology: a conservation agriculture approach for integrated management of insect pests,weeds and soil health in Africa

Push—pull technology (www.push-pull.net) is based on a novel cropping system developed by the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Rothamsted Research (UK) and national partners for integrated pest, weed and soil management in cereal—livestock farming systems. Stemborers are attracted to Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum), a trap plant (pull), and are repelled from the main cereal crop using a repellent legume intercrop (push), desmodium (Desmodium spp.). Desmodium root exudates effectively control the parasitic striga weed by causing abortive germination. Desmodium also improves soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, natural mulching, improved biomass and control of erosion. Both companion plants provide high value animal fodder, facilitating milk production and diversifying farmers' income sources. The technology is appropriate to smallholder mixed cropping systems in Africa. It effectively addresses major production constraints, increases maize yields from below 1 to 3.5t/ha, and is economical as it is based on locally available plants, not expensive external inputs. Adopted by over 30,000 farmers to date in East Africa, key factors in its further up-scaling include effective technology dissemination, adaptability of companion plants for climate resilience, capacity building and multi-stakeholder collaboration, integration with livestock husbandry, improvement in input accessibility and creation of a supportive policy framework.     

Geocultural landscaping: Guidelines and conceptual framework to design future scenarios of exploited lands

The environmental recovery of quarried areas is increasingly a landscaping first-order issue in many countries and relevant lessons can be learned from each case history, depending upon factors such as the terrain nature and landscape consolidation over time. The case of the Tivoli travertine quarries near Rome (Acque Albule Basin, Italy) is addressed with a multidisciplinary approach and analytic data indicating sustainable and resilient future solutions. Geological data are analyzed to know the resources and natural hazards of this territory. Historical landscape analyses are next accomplished to know the cultural heritage and evolution of man-nature interactions. Eventually, the present land use and 3D landscape are considered to know the current setting. This territory is characterized by natural hazards including earthquakes, degassing, subsidence, and river flooding, and by resources such as abundant thermal waters. Historical analyses show the occurrence of a significant cultural heritage including two UNESCO world heritage sites. The present landscape is characterized by deep quarries and unplanned urbanization. The integration of geological data with historical information provides a new knowledge forming a geocultural database that must be taken into consideration for future planning. Based on these results, general landscape and urban guidelines are proposed for the future recovery of this intensively-quarried and -urbanized territory. The main lesson learned from the Tivoli case history is twofold: (1) the integration and feedback between multiple disciplines and professionals (architects and geologists) working together on environmental improvements and (2) the careful view of the past territory and meticulous analysis of existing buildings and urban landscapes are the key to sustainably interpret the future landscape. The main novelty of this lesson is the improvement of the concept of cultural landscape (UNESCO: http://whc.unesco.org/en/culturallandscape/) and its expansion toward geological issues and man-geology/nature interactions. In an urban-saturated territory that is also geologically-worn by human activities (e.g., Acque Albule Basin), restoring guidelines must comply with the partly-new concept of geocultural landscaping, which consists of a sustainable and resilient planning based on the study and understanding of natural-geological hazards, natural and cultural resources, and man-nature relationships over large spaces and long terms (4D). A general conceptual framework for geocultural landscaping is eventually proposed.