Exchange rate flexibility and the demand for international reserves

Zusammenfassung Wechselkursflexibilit?t und die Nachfrage nach W?hrungsreserven. — In diesem Aufsatz werden die Implikationen der sogenannten ?Quadratwurzel-Regel? für die optimale Zunahme der H?he der vorsichtshalber gehaltenen W?hrungsreserven (Sicherheitsreserven) bei einer Vergr?\erung des Handelsvolumens n?her untersucht. Dabei wird die Regel erweitert, um die Auswirkung einer erh?hten Wechselkursflexibilit?t auf die optimale H?he der Sicherheitsreserven einzubeziehen. Es wird gezeigt, da\ die von Olivera vorgeschlagene ?Quadratwurzel-Regel? (1969, 1971), die die Nachfrage nach internationaler Liquidit?t in Beziehung zum Handelsvolumen setzt, mit der ?Kubikwurzel-Regel? von Whalen (1966) vereinbar ist, wenn die Kosten eines zu geringen Bestandes an W?hrungsreserven von der H?he des Fehlbetrages abh?ngen. Die Nachfrageelastizit?t nach Sicherheitsreserven in bezug auf die Erh?hung der Wechselkursflexibilit?t (definiert als Bandbreitenerweiterung) wird auf — 1/3 bis — 2/3 gesch?tzt. Die Analyse will hervorheben, da\ in einer internationalen W?hrungsordnung die Versorgung mit internationaler Liquidit?t und der Anpassungsmechanismus simultan geregelt werden müssen.

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Résumé La flexibilité des cours de change et la demande de réserves internationales. — Cette étude continue à examiner la ?règle de racine carrée? et les implications pour le développement optimal des réserves de précaution si le volume du commerce international est augmenté et, en outre, elle étend la règle en inclusant l’impact d’une flexibilité accrue des cours de change sur les balances optimales de précaution. L’auteur démontre que la ?règle de racine carrée?, qui fut suggérée par Olivera (1969, 1971) et qui établit un rapport entre la demande officielle de réserves internationales et le volume du commerce extérieur, est compatible avec la ?règle de racine cubique? par Whalen (1966) si les co?ts d’une pénurie de réserves sont supposés d’être dépendants de l’ampleur d’une telle pénurie. L’élasticité de la demande des réserves de précaution par rapport à l’augmentation de la flexibilité des cours de change (définie comme élargissement des marges autour de la parité) est estimée à se trouver entre un tiers et deux tiers (chaque fois de signe négatif). Le but de cette analyse est de mettre l’accent sur la thèse qu’on doit résoudre simultanément les problèmes de la liquidité et de l’ajustement du système monétaire international.

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Resumen Flexibilidad de los tipos de cambio y la demanda de reservas internacionales. — Este estudio analiza la ?regla de raíz cuadrada? y sus implicaciones para el movimiento óptimo de las reservas de precauci?n cuando el volumen de comercio aumenta, y amplifica dicha regla con el fin de considerar el impacto sobre las reservas de precaución de una mayor flexibilidad cambiaria. Queda demostrado que la ?regla de raíz cuadrada? sugerida por Olivera, que relaciona la demanda por reservas internacionales oficiales con el volumen de intercambio comercial, es consistente con la ?regla de raíz cúbica? formulada por Whalen si se supone que el costo de una escasez de reservas dépende de la magnitud de tal escasez. La elasticidad de demanda de reservas de precaución con respecto a un aumento de la flexibilidad cambiaria (en forma de una banda de fluctuación ampliada en torno a la paridad) se estima que varía entre menos un tercio y menos dos tercios. El anàlisis recalca la importancia de determinar simultáneamente la liquidez y el ajuste en el sistema monetario internacional.

     

On the exchange-rate elasticity of the demand for international reserves: Some evidence from industrial countries

Summary and Conclusion In this paper we tried to investigate the supposition that a change in exchange rate lowers the demand for international reserves. This goal was achieved by incorporating the real effective exchange rate into a standard real reserve demand equation from the literature. The model was estimated for a sample of 13 countries for which the effective exchange rate was available, using pooled quarterly data over the 1973-1985 period. The empirical results revealed that a change in exchange rate indeed reduces the demand for reserves supporting the theoretical arguments of the previous studies.     

Mercantilism and China's hunger for international reserves

This paper is motivated by the popular view that the surge in China's foreign exchange reserves is due to a distortionary exchange rate policy aimed at keeping the real exchange rate undervalued to support export-led growth. It undertakes an in-depth empirical investigation to quantify how much “mercantilist” and “precautionary” motives have contributed to the reserve build-up in China during 1998Q4-2011Q4. A substantial problem is that theory is consistent with employing two vastly differing approaches to defining and estimating the role of mercantilist reserve accumulation. A priori, either method could generate misleading results. The study shows, however, that the distinction between the two approaches is immaterial in China's case. The results suggest that mercantilism accounts for less than 10% of reserve accumulation. Precautionary motives and other factors seem to be the dominant determinants of the surge in China's international reserves.     

Optimal currency shares in international reserves: The impact of the euro and the prospects for the dollar

Foreign exchange reserve accumulation has risen dramatically in recent years. The introduction of the euro, greater liquidity in other major currencies, and the rising current account deficits and external debt of the United States have increased the pressure on central banks to diversify away from the US dollar. A major portfolio shift would significantly affect exchange rates and the status of the dollar as the dominant international currency. We develop a dynamic mean-variance optimization framework with portfolio rebalancing costs to estimate optimal portfolio weights among the main international currencies. Making various assumptions on expected currency returns and the variance–covariance structure, we assess how the euro has changed this allocation. We then perform simulations for the optimal currency allocations of four large emerging market countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China), adding constraints that reflect a central bank's desire to hold a sizable portion of its portfolio in the currencies of its peg, its foreign debt and its international trade. Our main results are: (i) The optimizer can match the large share of the US dollar in reserves, when the dollar is the reference (risk-free) currency. (ii) The optimum portfolios show a much lower weight for the euro than is observed. This suggests that the euro may already enjoy an enhanced role as an international reserve currency (“punching above its weight”). (iii) Growth in issuance of euro-denominated securities, a rise in euro zone trade with key emerging markets, and increased use of the euro as a currency peg, would all work towards raising the optimal euro shares, with the last factor being quantitatively the most important. J. Japanese Int. Economies 20 (4) (2006) 508–547.     

Monetary autonomy in selected Asian economies: The role of international reserves

With the increased financial integration of Asian countries, monetary policy takes on the additional role of maintaining the stability of the financial system along with the traditional objectives of promoting growth and employment with price stability. Given the importance and relevance of monetary policy in Asian countries, we examine monetary autonomy and its interaction with financial integration, currency regimes and international reserves for the past two decades in the following Asian countries: Thailand, Korea, Indonesia, the Philippines, and India. The empirical analysis reveals two significant and interesting findings that have policy implications. First, Thailand, Korea and Indonesia, countries that have moved towards a floating currency regime, experienced simultaneous declines in the sensitivity of their interest rates (thereby increasing monetary autonomy), while India continues to increase the sensitivity of its interest rates with a pegged exchange rate and increased financial integration. Second, in all of the studied economies, the accumulation of international reserves has contributed, to some extent, to the retention of monetary autonomy in terms of preventing the sensitivity of the interest rates from rising. We speculate that the accumulation of reserves plays the role of an anchor for monetary autonomy in emerging market economies facing a “fear of floating”.     

Testing the demand approach to reconstruct pre-industrial agricultural output

A common method to reconstruct historical national accounts is the demand approach, which calculates agricultural consumption from the development of wages and prices of agricultural and non-agricultural products assuming constant income, own price and cross price elasticities of demand. This study uses agricultural data for Sweden 1802–1950, which is more reliable than for other countries, to put the approach to test. Time series analysis shows that the demand approach could be modelled as a cointegrating relationship between per capita demand and the deflated wage. Income elasticity is estimated to +0.4. Using the estimated parameters to extrapolate Swedish agricultural consumption back to the Middle Ages accords quite well with other indicators. However, out-of-sampling shows that the 90% confidence interval is as large as ±0.15–0.25 natural logarithms.     

The needs for international monetary reserves,exchange rate flexibility,and joining a currency area

Summary The needs for reserves, exchange rate flexibility and monetary policy are derived, the need being the result of an optimization problem. The level of domestic production, its variance and that of the domestic price level have been chosen as criteria of the benefits and costs. The effectiveness and costs of balance of payments adjustment, which appear to be co-determinants of the needs, are expressed in the parameters of an economic model. This shows that the need for reserves displays a one-to-one relation to quantities of the demand for money and to the balance of payments disturbance. Only the latter is a meaningful criterion for joining a currency area. Helpful comments by Mr. G. J. Lanjouw and a referee are acknowledged. This article is a revised and extended version of Jager (1977).     

The game-theoretic approach to international policy coordination: Assessing the role of targets

Zusammenfassung Der spieltheoretische Ansatz zur internationalen Koordination der Konjunkturpolitik: Die Rolle der Ziele. - In spieltheoretischen Modellen zur internationalen Koordination der Konjunkturpolitik wird die Rolle der von den Politikern verfolgten Ziele oft nur unzul?nglich berücksichtigt. Der vorliegende Artikel behebt den Mangel, indem er die Ziele der Politiker in die modelltheoretische Analyse explizit einbezieht. Der Spielraum für Wohlfahrtsverbesserungen durch Koordination erweist sich als direkt proportional zur Abweichung des angestrebten Wertes vom tats?chlichen Wert der Zielvariablen. Es zeigt sich, da? nach einem externen Schock die Anpassung der Ziele an die neue Situation eine Koordination der Konjunkturpolitik überflüssig macht. Darüber hinaus ergeben sich erhebliche Zweifel, ob das bisherige Vorgehen zur Quantifizierung m?glicher Wohlfahrtsgewinne durch Koordination logisch zul?ssig ist.

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Résumé L’approche jeu-théorique à la coordination internationale de la politique de conjoncture: Evaluation du r?le des buts. - Le r?le des buts poursuivis par les politiciens n’est considéré que insuffisamment dans les modèles jeu-théoriques de la coordination internationale de la politique de conjoncture. Cet article remédie ce problème en incluant expressément les buts des politiciens dans l’analyse modèle-théorique. La marge pour des améliorations de bien-être par la coordination est trouvée comme être directement proportioneile à la déviation de la valeur actuelle de la valeur aspirée du but. Les auteurs démontrent que l’ajustement des buts à la nouvelle situation après un choc externe rend superflu la coordination de la politique de conjoncture. De plus, il y a des doutes considérables si la procédure actuelle pour quantifier des gains de bien-être possibles par la coordination soit logiquement correcte.

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Resumen Aplicación de la teoría de juegos a la coordinación internacional de políticas económicas: el rol de las metas. - En los modelos de teoría de juegos aplicados a la coordinación internacional de la política económica las metas perseguidas por los políticos solo son tomadas en cuenta de manera inadecuada. En este trabajo se corrige esta desventaja, al incorporarse las metas de los políticos al análisis teórico. Las posibilidades de lograr niveles m’as altos de bienestar através de la coordinación resultan directamente proporcionales a la distancia entre el valor deseado y el valor realizado. Se demuestra que después de un shock externo la adecuación de las metas a la nueva situación hace redundante la coordinación de la política económica. Además résulta dudosa la coherencia del procedimiento tradicional para cuantificar ganancias de bienestar potenciales derivadas de la coordinación.

     

Optimum international reserves and sovereign risk: Evidence from India

This paper empirically determines the optimal level of international reserves for India by explicitly incorporating the country's sovereign risk associated with the default on external debt. The optimum level of reserves is determined by minimizing the central bank's cost function, which consists of costs due to high reserve holdings and costs due to reserve depletion. The simulated optimum reserves for the period 1994–2010 indicate that actual reserves are higher than the optimum value across the sample period, except during 1997–1998.     

Balance of payments deficits,the adjustment cost and the optimum level of international reserves

Zusammenfassung Zahlungsbilanzdefizite, die Ausgleichskosten und die optimale H?he der internationalen Reserven. — Die Kosten des Ausgleichs eines Zahlungsbilanzdefizits durch eine Politik der Einkommenskürzung, eine Abwertung und induzierte kompensatorische Kapitalzuflüsse werden für eine Auswahl von fünfzehn L?ndern gesch?tzt. In dieser Stichprobe sind die Abwertungskosten und die Kosten von induzierten Kapitalzuflüssen niedriger als die Kosten einer reinen Einkommensdrosselungspolitik. Für Kanada, D?nemark und Südafrika stellt die Abwertung die billigste Anpassungspolitik dar. Das bedeutet, da\ es für diese L?nder vorteilhaft ist, flexible Wechselkurse zu haben. Anschlie\end wird die optimale H?he der internationalen Reserven auf der Grundlage der Formel von H. R. Heller berechnet; sie ist dann erreicht, wenn die marginalen Kosten des Ausgleichs des Zahlungsbilanzdefizits durch eine der drei Arten der Anpassungspolitik, die in dem Aufsatz beschrieben werden, gleich sind den Alternativkosten, die durch das Halten von internationalen Reserven entstehen. Die Verfasser stellen abschlie\end fest, da\ in ihrer Stichprobe die entwickelten L?nder, deren W?hrungen keine Leitw?hrungen sind, überschu\reserven besitzen, w?hrend die Entwicklungsl?nder über weniger Reserven verfügen, als optimal w?re.

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Résumé Les déficits de balance des paiements, les coüts d’ajustement et le niveau optimal des réserves internationales. — Sont estimés, pour un échantillon de quinze pays choisis, les coüts de l’ajustement d’un déficit de balance des paiements, ajustement au moyen d’une politique de réduction du revenu, d’une dévaluation et d’un afflux induit de capitaux compensatoires. Dans cet échantillon, les coüts de dévaluation et les coüts de l’afflux induit de capitaux sont plus bas que les coüts d’une pure politique de réduction du revenu. Pour le Canada, le Danemark et l’Union Sud-Africaine, la dévaluation représente la politique d’ajustement la moins coüteuse. Cela veut dire qu’il est avantageux pour ces pays de maintenir un système de cours des changes flexibles. Ensuite, le niveau optimal des réserves internationales est calculé sur la base de la formule de H. R. Heller. Ce niveau est atteint quand — au moyen d’une des trois politiques d’ajustement décrites dans cet article — le coüt marginal de l’ajustement du déficit de balance des paiements égale les coüts alternatifs d’une détention de réserves internationales. Finalement, les auteurs constatent que, dans leur échantillon, les pays développés, dont les monnaies ne sont pas des monnaies clef, possèdent un surplus de réserves, tandis que les réserves des pays á développer sont en dessous du niveau optimal.

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Resumen Déficit de balanza de pagos, el coste de compensatión y el volumen óptimo de réservas internationales. — El coste de compensación de un déficit de balanza de pagos mediante retractión de ingresos, devaluatión cambiaria o influjo de capital inducido se estima para una muestra de quince paises. Para esta muestra son los costos de devaluatión y de influjo de capital inducido menores que el coste de un pura retraction de ingresos. Para el Canadá, Dinamarca y Suráfrica la devaluation résulta ser la forma de ajuste más económica. Esto significa que séria ventajoso para estos paises tener tipos de cambio flexibles. A continuatión se calcula el volumen óptimo de réservas internacionales mediante la fórmula de H. R. Heller; el volumen es óptimo cuandoel coste marginal de compensaci?n del déficit de balanza de pagos mediante una de las très formas de ajuste, que se discuten en este artfculo, es igual a los costos alternatives que implica el mantenimiento de réservas internacionales. Los autores subrayan que en la muestra los paises desarrollados, cuyas monedas no son monedas de réserva, tienen réservas excesivas, mientras que los paises en desarrollo disponen de menos réservas de lo que séria óptimo.

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Riassunto Deficit délia bilancia dei pagamento, i costi di compensazione e le altezze ottimali délie riserve internazionali. — I costi délia compensazione di un deficit délia bilancia dei pagamenti per mezzo di una politica délia riduzione dei redditi, di una svalutazione ed afflussi compensativi indotti di capitale vengono valutati per una selezione di quindici Paesi. In questa prova a caso, i costi di svalutazione e quelli di afflussi indotti di capitale sono più bassi dei costi di una pura politica di strozzatura dei redditi. Per il Canadá, la Danimarca e il Sudafrica, la svalutazione rappresenta la politica di adattamento più a buon mercato. Ció significa che per questi Paesi è vantaggioso avère cambi flessibili. Successivamente viene calcolata l’altezza ottimale délie riserve internazionali sulla base délia formula di H. R. Heller; essa è allora raggiunta quando i costi marginali délia compensazione del deficit della bilancia dei pagamenti mediante uno dei tre modi della politica di adattamento che sono descritti nell’articolo sono uguali ai costi alternativi che sorgono per il mantenimento di riserve internazionali. Gli autori constatant) infine che nella loro prova a caso i Paesi sviluppati, le cui valute non sono monete guida, possiedono eccedenze di riserve, mentre i Paesi in sviluppo dispongono di minori riserve di quanto sia ottimale.

     

Exchange rate volatility,international trade and labour demand

The purpose of this study is to assess under what conditions exchange rate volatility generates a positive effect on an exporting firm’s labour demand. As the exchange rate volatility increases, so does the value of the export option, provided that firms are flexible with respect to international trade. Higher volatility increases the potential gains from trade and can increase the demand for labour. The firm’s trade flexibility can be interpreted as a real hedging strategy when financial markets are incomplete. In many newly industrializing countries and emerging economies financial markets are imperfect or risk sharing markets are just starting to develop at a rather slow pace.     

The demand for money in China 1987–2004: A non-linear modelling approach

This paper investigates non-linearities in the demand for money in China that would suggest a threshold point for inflation materially entering into the decisions of Chinese households and firms. This is achieved by adopting Terasvirta's [Terasvirta, T. (1998). Modelling economic relationships with smooth transition regressions. In: Ullah, A., & Giles, D. E. (eds.), Handbook of applied economic statistics, chapter 15, pp 507–552. New York, Marcel Dekker, Terasvirta, T. (2004). Smooth transition regression modeling. In: Lutkepohl, H., & Kratzig, M. (eds.), Applied time series econometrics, chapter 6, pp 222–242. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press] procedure to test the linearity of an error correction model of money demand against a smooth transition regression (STR) non-linear alternative. It finds there is a critical threshold figure for inflation affecting real money demand in China, at about 5%. The high and low inflation regimes are quite different from each other, so that non-linearity in the model is strong.     

The determinants of the demand of the demand for public education in China

我国关于公共产品的研究集中在供给方面,对公共产品需求的研究还相对较少.本文作者从需求角度,通过可行的计量分析,利用横截面数据,研究了人均教育支出与相关因素之间的关系.     

The demand for money in the Netherlands revisited

Summary This article presents an analysis of demand for money in The Netherlands, both at the aggregate level and the sectoral level. Special attention is devoted to the distinction between short and long run demand. Deviations of the long-run relationships are modelled by means of the error correction mechanism. The elasticities for aggregate demand are consistent with the findings for the money demand by the household and business sectors and correspond reasonably well with those derived from other studies. The estimated equations describe the rise in theM1- andM2-ratio in the 1980s in a satisfactory way, although forM2 from 1987 onwards there is a discrepancy between actual and fitted values. The disaggregated analysis shows that the behaviour of the business sector seems to be responsible for this.The authors are indebted to Professor S.K. Kuipers for his comments on an earlier draft.