Organizational Citizenship Behaviour for the Environment: Measurement and Validation

While the importance of employee initiatives for improving the environmental practices and performance of organizations has been clearly established in the literature, the precise nature of these initiatives has rarely been examined (particularly the issue of their discretionary or mandatory nature). The role of organizational citizenship behaviour in environmental management remains largely unexplored. The main objectives of this paper were to propose and validate an instrument for measuring organizational citizenship behaviour for the environment (OCBE). Exploratory (Study 1, N?=?228) and confirmatory (Study 2, N?=?651) analyses were conducted to examine the factor structure of OCBEs. The factor structure that emerged from Study 1 indicated that the three main types of OCBEs were eco-initiatives, eco-civic engagement and eco-helping. The factor structure found in Study 1 was confirmed by Study 2. Analysis of the three types of OCBEs highlighted the complexity of discretionary initiatives for the environment in the workplace and points to a number of avenues for further research.     

Toward a new measure of organizational environmental citizenship behavior

Previous work has conceptualized workplace pro-environmental behaviors within the organizational citizenship behavior framework and a scale to measure these behaviors has been developed. The goal of the present research was to address conceptual and psychometric issues of this scale by: (a) conceptualizing organizational environmental citizenship behavior within the dominant target-based framework, (b) developing and refining a new, more comprehensive measure of organizational environmental citizenship behavior and (c) validating this new measure by providing evidence for its content, construct, convergent, discriminant, concurrent, incremental concurrent and nomological validity, and its internal and temporal stability. To this end, six separate studies (N = 652) were conducted, which together produced a psychometrically acceptable measure of organizational environmental citizenship behavior. Theoretical and practical implications from this research and direction for future research are discussed.     

Antecedents of organizational citizenship behaviours among part-time employees of service organizations in Korea

This study investigates the antecedents of organizational citizenship behaviours by using data consisting of 196 part-time instructors drawn from six sport centres in the Republic of Korea. The results of a structural equation analysis suggest that job satisfaction has a positive effect on organizational and occupational commitment, occupational satisfaction has a positive effect on organizational and occupational commitment, organizational commitment has a positive effect on organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) and a negative effect on turnover intentions, and turnover intentions has a negative effect on OCBs. The effect of occupational commitment on both turnover intentions and OCBs was not significant. This research addresses a number of important issues in the management of human resources (i.e. part-time workers) in service organizations; that is, this study examines how part-time employees' satisfaction and commitment with respect to their jobs, occupations or organizations are related to their OCBs; this relationship is arguably one the most important issues facing service organizations today.     

Contextualist Inquiry into Organizational Citizenship: Promoting Recycling Across Heterogeneous Organizational Actors

Although there is a significant amount of research on organizational citizenship behavior and its importance to individual and organizational outcomes (Podsakoff et al. 2000), relatively little research has explored the process by which such behavior emerges and is established within an organization. Against this backdrop, we combine the perspectives offered by contextualist inquiry (Pettigrew 1990) and actor–network theory (Latour 2005) to propose an integrative framework for investigating how organizational citizenship behavior develops in a large, heterogeneous organization. In order to illustrate the framework, we present a detailed case study of recycling at a large university. Like many other organizations, the university does not have a formal organizational structure to address sustainability concerns and the initiatives are therefore mainly voluntary and emerging in nature, and outcomes are, as a consequence, highly uncertain, and fragile. We argue that contextualist inquiry in combination with actor–network theory provides new and important insights into the emergence and establishment of organizational citizenship behaviors, and that outcomes are contingent upon interactions between the context, process, and content of the behaviors in question and the related networks of human and non-human actors.     

The employee-organization relationship, organizational citizenship behaviors, and superior service quality

This study proposes a model of customer-contact service employee management that examines organizational citizenship behaviors as critical links between aspects of the employee-organization relationship (perceived organizational support, organizational identification) and customers’ perceptions of service quality. In addition, it investigates the role of job autonomy in providing the necessary behavioral discretion for employees to be able to perform citizenship behaviors. The hypothesized model was partially supported. Theoretical and managerial implications are explored.     

An Empirical Study of Environmental Awareness and Practices in SMEs

With increasing awareness of environmental issues, there has been rising demand for environmental-friendly business practices. Prior research has shown that the implementation of environmental management practices is influenced by existing and potential stakeholder groups in the form of external pressures from legislators, environmental groups, financial institutions and suppliers, as well as internally by employees and owner/manager attitudes and knowledge. However, it has been reported that despite business owner/managers having strong “green” attitudes, the level of implementation of environmental-friendly practices is low. In order to explore the connection between pressures for improved practices and the management actions taken, this article examines how influence from various stakeholders is related to awareness of environmental issues, and how this awareness relates to actions taken within the businesses to reduce the environmental impact of their operations. The results indicate that legislation does result in general environmental awareness, and that organizations are then willing to␣change their business processes and environmental strategies. However, despite their actions they have little awareness of the benefits that might arise from cost reductions from their environmental-friendly practices. Those influenced by their suppliers act to reduce waste, but do not put into place formal environmental management systems, or use environmental messages to market their goods or services. Nevertheless, it can be argued that they have a real commitment to environmental issues, as evidenced by a willingness to voluntarily contribute to environmental organizations.     

The 11 Questions Every Donor Asks and the Answers All Donors Crave: How You Can Inspire Someone to Give Generously,by H. McKinnon

Organizational learning and customer orientation have been a focus of research for a number of years in both marketing and management literature. Customer learning orientation is conceptualized as three important components: management customer orientation, customer feedback, and employee learning orientation. By drawing from both marketing and organizational research theories, the authors propose a model of customer learning orientation in a public sector organizational setting. Customer learning orientation is hypothesized to have a significant effect on employee attitudes of role ambiguity and self-efficacy, which in turn affects job outcomes of job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors. Using a sample of 438 employees of a public sector organization, the authors test the model through a structural equation modeling technique. The results provide general support for the model. Implications for managers of public sector organizations and future research are discussed.     

Do Unfair Procedures Predict Employees’ Ethical Behavior by Deactivating Formal Regulations?

The purpose of this study was to extend the knowledge about why procedural justice (PJ) has behavioral implications within organizations. Since prior studies show that PJ leads to legitimacy, the author suggests that, when formal regulations are unfairly implemented, they lose their validity or efficacy (becoming deactivated even if they are formally still in force). This “rule deactivation,” in turn, leads to two proposed destructive work behaviors, namely, workplace deviance and decreased citizenship behaviors (OCBs). The results support this mediating role of RD, thus suggesting that it forms part of the generative mechanism through which unfair procedures influence (un)ethical behavior within organizations. The author ends the article by discussing behavioral ethics and managerial implications as well as suggestions for future research.     

Examining tourist citizenship behaviors through affective,cognitive, behavioral engagement and reputation: Symmetrical and asymmetrical approaches

Although various studies have addressed customer citizenship behaviors and customer brand engagement, the effect of tourists’ pandemic-related destination brand reputation (DBR) on destination-brand-engagement (DBE) and tourist citizenship behaviors (TCB) remains nebulous. Based on signaling theory, social exchange theory, and complexity theory, we develop and test a theoretical model that explores the effect of tourist-perceived DBR on their affective, cognitive, and behavioral engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic. To explore these issues, this article adopts a mixed-method research approach, including symmetrical-based structural equation modeling (SEM) followed by asymmetrical-based fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA). First, the SEM findings reveal the positive effect of DBR on affective, cognitive, and behavioral brand engagement. Second, the SEM findings uncover the affective, cognitive, and behavioral brand engagement’s positive impact on TCB. Third, the fsQCA findings identify three heterogeneous variable combinations/configurations that facilitate TCB. This study offers important theoretical and practical implications for destination marketers in pandemic times.     

组织中人际信任关系对组织公民行为的影响

组织公民行为是由一系列与工作有关的自主合作行为所构成,能从总体上提高组织效能。如果组织成员相互信任程度高,他们就会采取合作行为,比如产生单方面的合作、利他、职务外工作等自发行为,人际信任直接或者间接地影响着组织公民行为,中西方组织中信任关系表现不同,直接影响组织公民行为的表现,中国企业要根据组织内信任关系的特点,采取相应措施,促进组织公民行为出现。     

A Board's Journey into Complexity Science: Lessons from (and for) Staff and Board Members

Complexity science has been used as a lens to interpret organizations (Goldstein 1994; Morgan 1993, 1997; Stacey 1992, 1996a; Wheatley 1992; Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers 1996; Zimmerman 1993a, 1993b). These interpretations have shone a light on aspects of organizations that were idiosyncratic or at least difficult to reconcile with dominant organizational theories. In this paper, we go beyond interpreting results through a complexity lens to demonstrating how board members and staff of an organization deliberately applied insights from complexity science to improve their work. Using an action learning approach, we worked with the board and staff for a year. One of the lessons from this journey was the need to differentiate between "fake" complexity and real complexity. Using "fake" complexity, simple issues were complexified and complex issues were avoided. Another key lesson was the role of relationships for complex issues. This paper presents a "STAR" relationship model to help organizations discern the generative potential of current and future relationships. Each point, or letter, of the STAR represents one dimension of a potentially generative relationship. Through the action research process, both the researchers and the members of the organization extended our understanding of how complexity science can enhance the capacity to evolve in a rapidly changing environment.     

Ethical Duties of Organizational Citizens: Obligations Owed by Highly Committed Employees

Individuals who demonstrate organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) contribute to their organization??s ability to create wealth, but they also owe their organizations a complex set of ethical duties. Although, the academic literature has begun to address the ethical duties owed by organizational leaders to organizational citizens, very little has been written about the duties owed by those who practice OCB to their organizations. In this article, we identify an array of ethical duties owed by those who engage in extra-role behavior and describe those duties in context with personality theory. We suggest that employees who understand the complex nature of OCB and the associated duties they owe to others are more likely to reach their potential and make greater contributions within their organizations.     

The Impact of Human Resource Management on Environmental Performance: An Employee-Level Study

This field study investigated the relationship between strategic human resource management, internal environmental concern, organizational citizenship behavior for the environment, and environmental performance. The originality of the present research was to link human resource management and environmental management in the Chinese context. Data consisted of 151 matched questionnaires from top management team members, chief executive officers, and frontline workers. The main results indicate that organizational citizenship behavior for the environment fully mediates the relationship between strategic human resource management and environmental performance, and that internal environmental concern moderates the effect of strategic human resource management on organizational citizenship behavior for the environment.     

Modeling Corporate Citizenship and Its Relationship with Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Citizenship, such as corporate citizenship and organizational citizenship, has been an important issue in business management for decades. This study proposes a research model from the perspectives of social identity and resource allocation, by examining the influence of corporate citizenship on organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). In the model, OCBs are positively influenced by perceived legal citizenship and perceived ethical citizenship, while negatively influenced by perceived discretionary citizenship. Empirical testing using a survey of personnel from 18 large firms confirms most of our hypothesized effects. Theoretical and managerial implications of our findings are discussed.     

Hybrid business models for peace and reconciliation

Despite growing interest in business for peace, there is little insight into how the organizations involved combine societal aims with economic ones in their business models. Literature has exemplified ‘hybrid organizations’ that seek to pursue both for-profit and non-profit activities and are specifically set up with this mission, usually in stable Western countries. However, already existing, traditional organizations that aim for mixed forms of economic and social value creation have been underexposed, and that applies even more for organizational forms that address peace in difficult settings. To help fill these gaps, this article sheds light on different degrees of hybridity of a range of organizations operating in a (post-)conflict region. It shows how 53 organizations in between the non-profit/for-profit extremes pursue different combinations of social and economic goals, maintain and develop relationships with stakeholders, and interact progressively with markets and institutions. We also present a hybridization continuum and classification scheme that is applicable beyond our specific context. While different degrees of hybridity in objectives, perspectives, and relationships exist, key dimensions are frequent interactions with stakeholders, awareness of development and reconciliation issues, and personal commitment. We identify hybridity aspects relevant to management and discuss implications for business scholars and practitioners.     

Managers’ Citizenship Behaviors for the Environment: A Developmental Perspective

The objective of this longitudinal study is to analyze the intrinsic drivers and values underlying managers’ organizational citizenship behaviors for the environment (OCBEs) from a developmental psychology perspective based on measuring the stages of consciousness that shape the meaning-making systems of individuals. At time 1, the stages of consciousness of 138 managers were qualitatively assessed using the Leader Development Profile test. At time 2, a quantitative survey measured the environmental beliefs and OCBEs of these managers. The links between stages of consciousness, environmental beliefs, and OCBEs were analyzed using hierarchical regressions. The main findings show that managers’ stages of consciousness positively influence two types of OCBEs, namely eco-initiatives and eco-helping, while environmental beliefs influence eco-helping and eco-civic engagement but do not appear to be connected with the stage of consciousness development. This paper first contributes to the literature on corporate greening by shedding more light on the aspects of behavioral and developmental psychology that underlie environmental leadership. Second, it bridges the gap between theories that have developed separately by showing the interconnectedness between the managers’ stage of consciousness and the more concrete environmental behaviors in the workplace that could have emulative effects throughout the organization.     

Corporate environmental market responsiveness: A model of individual and organizational drivers

This study examines the psychological and organizational drivers of corporate environmental market responsiveness (CEMR). Drawing on the relevant literature, the study identifies several variables of potential importance in CEMR and builds on the theory of planned behavior to propose a model of hypothesized relationships among these variables. The study tests hypotheses in an empirical study using a large sample of environmental managers from eleven members of the European Environmental Agency. The research findings show that the environmental behaviors of managers are largely determined by social judgments and perceptions. The present study has implications for managers who wish to pursue an environmental market-oriented approach to business. These results also have important implications for organizational theory and the debates about whether economic or social factors determine the effects of environmental issues on competitive advantage.     

Accounting for the Unaccountable: Biodiversity Reporting and Impression Management

This paper explores the strategies organizations use to demonstrate their accountability for biodiversity and legitimize their impact in this area through the use of techniques of neutralization. Neutralization aims to manage stakeholder impressions on very socially sensitive issues. Based on the content analysis of 148 sustainability reports from mining organizations, the study sheds light on the successful use of rhetoric in reports on non-measurable and potentially unaccountable issues. Specifically, the study shows that mining organizations use four main techniques of neutralization when they explain their impact on biodiversity. When they address stakeholders, they defend their social legitimacy and environmental responsiveness using one of the four techniques: they claim of a net positive or neutral impact on biodiversity, they deny that they have a significant impact, they distance themselves from the impact of their actions, and they play down their responsibilities. The study contributes to the literature on corporate sustainability and accounting for stakeholders. It focuses on under-researched issues such as the management of biodiversity and the tactics used to rationalize negative impacts. The study also bridges the gap between theories about organizational legitimacy, impression management, and techniques of neutralization.     

Matching Ethical Work Climate to In-role and Extra-role Behaviors in a Collectivist Work Setting

This paper studies the relationship between organizational ethical climate and the forms of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB), including in-role and extra-role behaviors, and examines the mediating effect of employee loyalty. A sample of employees from a traditional Hong Kong-based company was used as a study group. The purpose of this study was to examine the causes and implications of how various ethical work climates affect employee performance. Based on a model proposed by Victor and Cullen, ethical climate is arranged from lower levels to higher levels. The results suggest that lower levels of ethical climate (instrumentality and independence), characterizing a weak relational contract between employee and employer, are associated with negative extra-role behavior. In contrast, higher levels of ethical climate (caring and law-and-code), symbolic of a strong relational contract at work, are associated with positive extra-role behavior. Moreover, normative commitment mediated a positive relationship between caring and identification with the company, whereas attitudinal loyalty mediated the negative relationship between independence and altruism. Implications for future research and practice are discussed. Dr. Alicia Leung is an Associate Professor of Management at the Hong Kong Baptist University. She received her Ph.D. degree in Management Learning from the University of Lancaster, U.K. She is active in researching and writing materials about Asian organizations and management issues. Her research interests include gender issues and feminist methodology, business ethics, corporate governance, and strategic management in the Asian context.     

Longitudinal organizational research in field settings

Managers, theorists, and researchers are interested in studying organizational phenomena such as technological change, organizational development, and leadership effectiveness over a period of time. However, a review of the literature in the field of organizational behavior and management indicates that a limited number of empirically based studies rigorously investigate changes within organizations. This article looks at the salient characteristics and issues facing those engaged in longitudinal research. While much more theoretical and methodological work is needed to improve the rigor of this type of research, some researchers have forged ahead and have attempted to conduct longitudinal research in field settings. A select few of these studies are presented to illustrate what can be accomplished by longitudinal research and what needs to be improved in such research designs. In conclusion, the authors offer some suggestions that may serve to increase the number of longitudinal organizational research studies in the future.