Epistemological and ethical considerations in conceptualizing and implementing human resource management

As an example of applied social science, the field of human resource management is used to show that ethical problems are not only those of carrying out research, of professional conduct, and of the distribution fairness of social science knowledge. A largely overlooked ethical issue is also the implicit choices that are made as an integral part of research and implementation. First, an analysis is undertaken of the implicit assumptions, values and goals that derive from the conception of human problems in work organizations as managing human resources. Secondly, it is argued that such a conception is in fact a socially constructed reality with real consequences and not a reflection of objective states of human and social nature with which we have to live. Thirdly, to the extent that our implicit assumptions are in part based upon conceptual choices that are made by individuals or as a collective act of a discipline or work organization, the development of an ethical framework that could guide such choices becomes a crucial challenge for business ethics.H. Peter Dachler currently holds the chair for organizational psychology at the University of St. Gall, Switzerland. He received his graduate training in industrial/organizational psychology at the University of Illinois at Urbana and subsequently taught in the Department of Psychology at the University of Maryland, College Park. He was a fellow for two years at the International Institute of Management in the Science Center, Berlin, and is on the editorial boards of various international and American scientific journals. He has published mainly in the areas of motivation, leadership, organization theory, and the theoretical and practical implications of a constructionist epistemology for employee assessment, participation and leadership. Georges Enderle is a senior lecturer for business ethics at the University of St. Gall, Switzerland. Since 1983 he has been Director of the Institute for Business Ethics. He is the author of Sicherung des Existenzminimums im nationalen und internationalen Kontext — eine wirtschaftsethische Studie [Securing the minimal standard of living in the national and international context: A business ethics perspective]. He has written various articles on business ethics.     

Managers,values, and executive decisions: An exploration of the role of gender,career stage,organizational level,function, and the importance of ethics,relationships and results in managerial decision-making

A study of 513 executives researched decisions involving ethics, relationships and results. Analyzing personal values, organization role and level, career stage, gender and sex role with decisions in ten scenarios produced conclusions about both the role of gender, subjective values, and the other study variables and about situational relativity, gender stereotypes, career stages, and future research opportunities. John H. Barnett is Associate Professor at the University of New Hampshire, has an extensive background in international business and management consulting, and is co-founder of the Circle for Executive Experential Development. His publications include: A Business Model of Enlightenment, (1985) JBE, Personal Values and Business Decisions, (1987); Strategic Management Concepts and Cases 1988; Strategic Management Text and Concepts, 1989 and Cases in Strategic Management, 1989.Marvin J. Karson is Professor of Business Statistics and James R. Carter Professor of Management at the University of New Hampshire. He was formerly Professor of Statistics at the University of Alabama. His work has been published in a number of professional journals.     

Characteristics and practices of “Christian-based” companies

There is a sizeable group of self-described Christian companies which have declared their belief in the successful merging of biblical principles with business activities. As these companies have become more visible, an increasing number of anecdotal newspaper and magazine articles about these companies have appeared. Surprisingly, no rigorous research has been conducted prior to our recent study. This article provides national estimates of the size and predominant characteristics of self-identified Christian companies. In addition, the study investigated the types of relationships these companies maintained with their employees, customers, communities, and suppliers.Nabil Ibrahim is an Assistant Professor of Business Administration at Augusta College, Augusta, Georgia. He has published articles, case studies, and professional papers in the areas of business policy and strategy.Dr. Leslie W. Rue is Professor of Management in the College of Business Administration at Georgia State University. He is the author of over forty articles, cases, and papers that have appeared in academic and practitioner journals. He has coauthored eight textbooks in the field of management.Dr. Patricia P. McDougall is an Assistant Professor of Management at Georgia State University. Her research focuses primarily on new venture strategies and international entrepreneurship and has been published in several academic journals. Dr. G. Robert Grenne is an Associate Professor of Management at Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia where he teaches strategic management and entrepreneurship. He is a Contributing Editor to Spiritual Fitness in Business and has published articles in various academic and practitioner journals.     

Situational ethics: An empirical study of differentiators of student attitudes

This paper reports the results of a questionnaire administered to 1178 undergraduate students and discusses how they responded to ten situations which asked them to assess their personal evaluation of the ethical acceptability, how society would similarly assess the situation and how business persons would respond. Multiple versions of the instrument were developed to investigate if the sex of the person involved in the situation would influence the respondents' perception of the ethical action involved. No differences were identified. Further, the image of business persons as less ethical than society in general seems to have evaporated. Charles W. McNichols is Professor of Management at Clemson University where he teaches courses emphasizing management applications of computer technology. He was previously Professor of Operations Research at the Air Force Institute of Technology. He has published three books dealing with business and professional applications of microcomputers, and articles in the Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psychology,the IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management,and other management publications. Thomas W. Zimmer is Professor of Management at Clemson University. He has authored books on business, business policy supervision and small business management, as well as over 50 articles which have appeared in Nation's Business, Management Review, Human Resources Management,and many others. Dr. Zimmerer has been honored in his academic career by membership both in Beta Gamma Sigma and Phi Kappa Phi, as well as twice being voted by the students as the outstanding teacher in his college. In 1975 he was elected to Outstanding Educators in American. Dr. Zimmerer was formerly with Florida Atlantic University and the McDonald-Douglas Corporation.     

Applying the principles of Gestalt theory to teaching ethics

Teaching ethics poses a dilemma for professors of business. First, they have little or no formal training in ethics. Second, they have established ethical values that they may not want to impose upon their students. What is needed is a well-recognized, yet non-sectarian model to facilitate the clarification of ethical questions. Gestalt theory offers such a framework. Four Gestalt principles facilitate ethical clarification and another four Gestalt principles anesthetize ethical clarification. This article examines each principle, illustrates that principle through current business examples, and offers exercises for developing each principle. Eugene H. Hunt is professor of management in the School of Business at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond. He has done advanced studies in organization development at the National Training Laboratories (NTL) and has studied Gestalt theory at the Gestalt Institute in Cleveland. He currently teaches a course in the history of management thought for doctoral students, in principles of management for masters students, and in organizational behavior for undergraduate students. For a number of years he wrote a column in Management World titled, Expanding Your Repertoire of Managerial Behavior.Ronald K. Bullis is Acting Head of Staff at a Presbyterian Church in Richmond, Virginia. He has done advanced graduate work in clinical social work at Virginia Commonwealth University and is an adjunct faculty teaching law and religion at Virginia Union University, Richmond. He also teaches law and religion at the Institute of Theology at Princeton Theological Seminary. He conducts individual, group and family counseling and is a certified sex educator.     

General causal models in business ethics: An essay on colliding research traditions

The construction of causal models for research in business ethics has become fashionable in recent years. This paper explores four recent proposals, comparing and contrasting their views. The primary purpose of this paper is to expose several confusions inherent in such models and to account for these errors in terms of a failure to distinguish between models as theories and models as representing a research tradition. We conclude with a brief set of recommendations for linking two major research traditions in business ethics: empiricism and ethical theory.F. Neil Brady is Professor of Management at San Diego State University. He is the author ofEthical Managing: Rules and Results (Macmillan, 1990) and numerous articles on business ethics. His research focuses on the application of ethical theory to business decision making.Mary Jo Hatch is an Associate Professor at San Diego State University and visiting Associate Professor at the Copenhagen Business School in Denmark. Her research interests include the link between business ethics and organizational culture, and humor in management teams. She has published articles on organizational culture and the behavioral and symbolic aspects of organizations as physical structures.     

Employers' pay practices and potential responses to “comparable worth” litigation an identification of research issues

Comparable worth is a controversial compensation strategy. In this paper, research issues that arise when employers perform point-based job evaluations, but deviate from them because of market factors, are discussed. Greater research attention to the actual operation of markets and to the consequences of conflicts in equity perceptions is encouraged. Marcia P. Miceli is Associate Professor of Management and Human Resources at Ohio State University. Her research interests are in the areas of compensation administration, professional dissent and whistle-blowing, and employee selection and recruitment. Her previous works in these areas have been published in Academy of Management Review, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Applied Psychology, and Journal of Business Ethics. John D. Blackburn is Associate Professor at the College of Business at Ohio State University. He has won the Best Article Award — American Business Law Journal. He is the co-author (with Julius Getman) of Labor Relations: Law, Practice and Policy. Stephen L. Mangum is Assistant Professor of Management and Human Resources at Ohio State University. His research has been in the areas of economic development, employment and training programs, pay equity, and military manpower and has appeared in such journals as Journal of Development Economics, Journal of Collective Negotiations in the Public Sector, Armed Forces and Society and Challenge. He is author (with Dr. C. Y. Hsieh) of A Search for Synthesis in Economic Theory (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1986).An earlier version of this paper was presented at a meeting of the Academy of Management. The authors thank Jerry Greenberg and Arnon Reichers for their helpful comments on an earlier draft.     

Ethical considerations in frequent flier programs

An overwhelming majority of business travelers are now members of frequent flier programs operated by the airline industry. This article addresses relevant ethical issues, particularly employee perceptions of ethical issues, in such programs. A structured questionnaire technique, supported by personal interviews, was used to gather insights into frequent flier practices and attitudes. A fundamental conclusion of the research is that (1) significant ethical dilemmas are posed by frequent flier programs, (2) employees and employers generally choose to ignore these ethical dilemmas, and (3) employee perception of the ethical issues in frequent flier programs is not significantly influenced by employee attributes such as education level, salary, organizational position, age or sex. Recommendations are offered to reduce the inherent ethical dilemmas in frequent flier programs. Richard H. Deane is an Associate Professor of Management at Georgia State University in Atlanta. He earned his Ph.D. degree in Industrial Engineering from Purdue University. Dr. Deane also holds the J.D. degree and is licensed to practice law before the state and federal courts. His scholarly publication record includes articles in IEE Transactions, Computers and Industrial Engineering, Operations Research Quarterly, Production and Inventory Management, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Business, Industrial Engineering and Operations Management Review. He has also published in The Trial Lawyer's Quarterly, The Golden Gate Law Review, Professional Safety and The Journal of Rehabilitation. His recent publications include articles on employment discrimination, workplace smoking, and ethics in operations management.     

A study of Hong Kong Businessmen's perceptions of the role “Guanxi” in the People's Republic of China

Guanxi is perceived as a major determinant for successful business in China. This research paper investigates the importance of Guanxi from the Hong Kong Businessmen's viewpoint. It confirms previous findings in this area and adds on new dimensions. Therefore, practitioners and academics may further refine their knowledge in this subject.Leung, T. K. P. is an Assistant Professor of Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He specializes in industrial marketing and marketing in China. His current research interests include issues in Guanxi, networking in China, and Chinese negotiation. He has published in referred journals related to the PRC market.Wong, Y. H. is an Assistant Professor at Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He teaches courses in sales management and international marketing. His current research focuses on issues of relationship marketing and Guanxi model. His recent publications include articles in preferred journal and books.Wong, Syson was a lecturer of Hong Kong Polytechnic University and is now a business consultant. She specializes in quantitative methods and China business. Her current consultancy works include a big project in China.     

Meta-learning about business ethics: Building honorable business school communities

We propose extending business ethics education beyond the formal curriculum to the hidden curriculum where messages about ethics and values are implicitly sent and received. In this meta-learning approach, students learn by becoming active participants in an honorable business school community where real ethical issues are openly discussed and acted upon. When combined with formal ethics instruction, this meta-learning approach provides a framework for a proposed comprehensive program of business ethics education.Linda Klebe Trevino is Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior at the Mary Jean and Frank B. Smeal College of Business Administration, The Pennsylvania State University. Her research focuses on the management of ethical-unethical behavior in organizations and justice in disciplinary situations.Donald L. McCabe is Associate Professor of Management at the Graduate School of Management, Rutgers — the State University of New Jersey. His research focuses on decision making and interpretive processes under conditions of uncertainty, and the management of ethical behavior in organizations.     

An ethical analysis of deception in advertising

This paper examines several issues regarding deception in advertising. Some generally accepted definitions are considered and found to be inadequate. An alternative definition is proposed for legal/regulatory purposes and is related to a suggested definition of the term deception as it is used in everyday language. Based upon these definitions, suggestions are offered for detecting and regulating deception in advertising. This paper additionally considers the grounds for the generally held but largely unquestioned assumption that deceptive advertising is unethical. It is argued that deceptive advertising can be shown to be morally objectionable, on the weak assumption that it is prima facie wrong to harm others. Finally, the implications of this analysis with respect to current regulation of deceptive advertising by the FTC are considered. Thomas L. Carson is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. He was previously Lecturer at the University of California at Los Angeles and was holder of an NEH Fellowship for College Teachers. His most important publication is The Status of Morality, Reidel, Dordrecht, 1984. Forthcoming (in Philosophy and Public Affairs) is: Bribery, Extortion, and The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.Richard E. Wokutch is Associate Professor of Management at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University where he teaches in the social issues and policy areas. He previously held positions as Visiting Assistant Research Professor at the Values Center, University of Delaware, and as Visiting Fulbright Research Fellow, Science Center, Berlin, West Germany. He has published several recent articles in the areas of bluffing and deception in business and ethical/social investing. James E. Cox, Jr., is Assistant Professor of Management and Marketing at Illinois State University. Formerly, he was at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (from September 1979 until August 1983). He was a fellow at the 1979 American Marketing Association Ph. D. Consortium and his research has been published in the Journal of Forecasting, the Journal of Marketing Education, the Proceedings of the American Marketing Association, and the Proceedings of the National Council of Physical Distribution Management. He is also co-author of the book Sales Forecasting Methods: A Survey of Recent Developments.     

Justice in preferential hiring

This paper reports studies designed to examine perceptions of preferential selection. Subjects evaluated the fairness of hypothetical cases of selection decisions based on either candidate sex or ethnic origin. A within-subjects design and a between-subjects design yielded convergent results showing that (1) preferential selection was perceived as unfair, irrespective of respondent sex or the basis for the preferential treatment (i.e., candidate sex or ethnic origin), (2) the level of perceived injustice was directly related to the discrepancy in merits between the successful minority candidate and the more qualified yet unsuccessful majority candidate, and (3) the provision of either an ethical or legislative justification for the selection decisions further exacerbated feelings of injustice. Possible interpretations for the findings and practical implications of the study were then discussed. M. S. Singer is a senior lecturer in psychology at Canterbury University. Her published work includes papers in Personnel Psychology, Journal of Applied Psychology, Current Psychology: Research and Reviews,and Applied Psychology: An International Review. A. E. Singer is a senior lecturer in strategic management and business ethics at Canterbury University. He has published various papers in academic journals including Omega: The International Journal of Management Science, Decision Sciences, International Journal of Forecasting, International Journal of Research in Marketing,and Journal of Business Ethics.     

Adam Smith and the ethics of contemporary capitalism

This paper presents a theoretical elaboration of the ethical framework of classical capitalism as formulated by Adam Smith in reaction to the dominant mercantilism of his day. It is seen that Smith's project was profoundly ethical and designed to emancipate the consumer from a producer and state dominated economy. Over time, however, the various dysfunctions of a capitalist economy — e.g., concentration of wealth, market power — became manifest and the utilitarian ethical basis of the system eroded. Contemporary capitalism, dominated as it is by large corporations, entrenched political interests and persistent social pathologies, bears little resemblance to the system which Smith envisioned would serve the common man. Most critiques of capitalism are launched from a Marxian-based perspective. We find, however, that by illustrating the wide gap between the reality of contemporary capitalism and the model of amoral political economy developed by Smith, the father of capitalism proves to be the most trenchant critic of the current order.G. R. Bassiry is currently professor of Management and international business at California State University, San Bernardino, California. Formerly he served as Vice President and Acting President of Farabi University. His most recent articles on business ethics include Ethics, Education, and Corporate Leadership,Journal of Business Ethics and Business Ethics and the United Nations: A Code of Conduct,Sam Advanced Management Journal. He has also published numerous journal articles on international business, corporate strategy and corporate leadership, and is the author ofPower vs. Profit by Arno Press of New York Times.Marc Jones is a management lecturer at the University of Otago, New Zealand. His research interests include multinational corporations and economic development. He has worked as a financial analyst for Electronic Data Systems Corporation and as a management consultant for Peat Marwick Main & Company.     

Risk,commitment, and project abandonment

This article deals briefly with the most loathsome of business topics — the admission of failure. Rather than actively encouraging project Anti-champions, many organizations experiencing financial duress inadverdently stifle opposing opinion. In some cases recognition is delayed until it is too late. This is unfortunate since failure can be managed like any other business situation. Companies with CEOs that foster open communications between finance and operations are more likely to avoid escalating commitment to failed projects.Prudence is a rich, ugly old maid courted by incapacity. William Blake Mike Devaney is Associate Professor of Finance at South-East Missouri State University. His primary research interest is real estate finance. He has published in the Journal of the American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, Journal of Real Estate Research, and The Appraisal Journal to name a few. He also enjoys writing on popular business myth and has published on this subject in Business and Society Review as well as others.     

Pygmalion effect: An issue for business education and ethics

This study reports the results of a survey designed to assess the impact of business education on the ethical beliefs of business students. The study examines the beliefs of graduate and undergraduate students about ethical behavior in educational settings. The investigation indicates that the behavior which students learn or perceive is required to succeed in business schools may run counter to the ethical sanctions of society and the business community. Michael S. Lane is Assistant Professor of Management at West Virginia University. He is the coauthor of An Integrated Approach to Curriculum Design/Redesign, Journal of Education for Business (1986), and Corporate Goals and Managerial Motivation, Mid-South Business Journal (1985).Dietrich Schaupp is Professor of Management at West Virginia University.Barbara Parsons is Assistant Professor of Commerce at Fairmont State College.     

Ethics in education: A comparative study

This study reports the results of a survey designed to assess the impact of education on the perceptions of ethical beliefs of students. The study examines the beliefs of students from selected colleges in an eastern university. The results indicate that beliefs which students perceive are required to succeed in the university differ among colleges. Business and economics students consistently perceive a greater need for unethical beliefs than students from other colleges. Michael S. Lane is an Associate Professor of Management at West Virginia University. He is the coauthor of Corporate Goal structures and Business students: A Comparative Study of Values, Journal of Business Ethics (1989). Dietrich L. Schaupp is Professor of Management at West Virginia University. He is the coauthor of Pygmalion Effect: An Issue for Business Education and Ethics, Journal of Business Ethics (1988).     

Ethical issues confronting travel agents

This article provides an overview of current and prospective ethical issues facing commercial (as opposed to leisure) travel agents. Industry wide ethical issues include conflicting pressures from suppliers and clients, competency requirements for agents and misleading advertising and sales claims (vaporware in industry jargon). Issues with travel suppliers include calculation and payment of commissions, fare loopholes, frequent flyer plans and the use and abuse of benefits directed to individual employees. Issues with corporate clients of travel agents include hidden preferred carriers or suppliers, client pressure to use fare loopholes and hidden relationships with corporate travel consultants. Future issues include protecting client privacy, free riding, and divergent international business practices. Thomas W. Dunfee is the Kolodny Professor of Social Responsibility at The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. His current research interests focus on social contract theory and business ethics and on developing ethical standards for business transactions. He has published articles in the Business Ethics Quarterly,the Journal of Business Ethics,the Business and Professional Ethics Journal,and the Journal of Social Philosophyin addition to a variety of business and legal journals. He has consulted to a number of corporate clients and to several trade associations.Bruce M. Black is founder and president of McCord Travel Management. Since founding the company in 1980, he has led its growth to one of the 30 largest travel management firms in the United States, with annual sales of more than $100 million. Black is one of the inaugural members of the University of Illinois at Chicago Entrepreneurship Hall of Fame and is on the board of the International Theatre Festival of Chicago. He is also active in the exploration of a variety of industry related issues on behalf of the Super Regional Group of agencies.     

An assessment of ethics instruction in accounting education

Business school faculty have begun to increase ethics instruction, but very little has been done to assess the effectiveness of this instruction. Curricula-wide studies present conflicting results of the effect of ethics integration into the business curricula. Several studies suggest that courses like business ethics and business and society might have an effect on the ethical awareness or ethical reasoning of business students. A belief of many individuals interested in business ethics is that students must be exposed to ethical awareness and ethical reasoning in business ethics and business and society-type courses and this should be supplemented by discussions of these topics in various business courses such as Accounting, Finance, Marketing, and others.This study reports the results of integrating a unit of business ethics into eleven accounting classes at two universities. An approach for measuring the effect of ethics integration into accounting and other business courses is suggested, and an assessment is made of the impact of ethics integration on students in accounting classes. Results indicate that the principles on which students rely when making moral decisions were affected by ethics integration. After ethics integration, students relied more heavily on the disclosure rule, the golden rule, and the professional ethic.Kenneth M. Hiltebeitel, Ph.D., CPA is an Associate Professor of Accountancy at Villanova University. He has included a unit on business ethics in his Auditing and Advanced Accounting classes for the past two years.Scott K. Jones, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of Accounting at the University of Delaware. He has included a unit on business ethics in his Cost Accounting classes for the past two years.     

A response to “On Measuring Ethical Judgments”

This article discusses the major criticisms posed in On Measuring Ethical Judgments concerning our ethics scale development work. We agree that the authors of the criticism do engage in what they accurately refer to as armchair theorizing. We point out the errors in their comments.Dr. R. Eric Reidenbach is Professor of Marketing at The University of Southern Mississippi. He is the coauthor of two books on business ethics and writes extensively on the subject of the measurement of ethical decision making.Dr. Donald P, Robin is Professor of Marketing and Professor of Business Ethics at The University of Southern Mississippi. He is coauthor of two books on business ethics, as well as numerous articles. Dr. Robin is also a frequent lecturer on the subject of business and marketing ethics.     

Karoushi: Stress-death and the meaning of work

The present article is concerned with some of the human factors involved when overtime and overwork become part of the regular and accepted pattern of work, with sometimes tragic results. While the economic miracle of Japan can be much admired, it has not been without human cost. Only recently, national and global attention is being focused on a new and deadly phenomenon in Japan:Karoushi, which the Japanese define as death from overwork, and which I choose to re-define as stress-death related to feelings of helplessness.It is my tentative hypothesis thatkaroushi is not directly caused by overwork, as popularly assumed. Rather, I believe that overwork is only one factor, and that stress-death is actually caused by the cumulative, long-range effects of working in a situation where one feels trapped and powerless to effect any change for the better, which in turn leads to attitudes of hopelessness — attitudes which are exacerbated, rather than ameliorated, by environmental and managerial factors.Dr. Walter Tubbs received his Ph.D. in Neuropsychology and Philosophy after doing work at Stanford and Drew Universities. After involvement in brain research at Stanford, he practiced stress-management counseling and biofeedback training at Loma Linda University, and taught for 13 years at the University of Redlands in California. He has been in Japan for 11 years as a Senior Researcher.