The symbolic interaction metaphor and leisure: critical challenges

In 1983, Leisure Identities and Interactions was published in an attempt to provide an alternative to structure-functional sociological premises, theory, and research methods. This symbolic-interaction project focused on situated meanings of behavior, proposed identity as a link between the personal and the social, defined leisure as a constructed process, and gave attention to actual social contexts including role sets and face-to-face interaction. In the decade since, at least three major developments in the study of leisure have challenged the LII project: attention to gender issues, British cultural studies, and social construction approaches. Implications of these challenges are examined and revisions of the project suggested.     

Publishing in the primary leisure journals: Insight into the structure and boundaries of our research

Abstract

This study is a systematic empirical analysis of the structure and boundaries of leisure research as reflected by 2,628 citations used in six volumes of Journal of Leisure Research and Leisure Sciences. Four indicators were used to describe the structure of leisure research: the contributions from other fields, the type of citations used, the number of leisure sub‐topical areas, and the age of the citations. Leisure research has extensive ties with at least six fields and intensive attachments to three fields. As a result, citations are diversified by field and by many leisure research specialty areas. Journals and books constitute the majority of citation types, and the accumulation of recreation/leisure literature has shown substantial growth since the late 1950s. The proportion of sources originating in the recreation and parks field is growing but is still at relatively low levels in comparison with other fields of inquiry.     

Coming to Terms with Leisure and Globalization

Abstract

This article is concerned with the engagement of leisure studies as an academic field and as organized, professional intervention with the phenomenon of globalization, using the exemplificatory case of the World Leisure and Recreation Association’s (now World Leisure’s) Sao Paulo Declaration on Leisure and Globalization as a point of reference. Deploying a combination of globalization theory and ‘autoethnographic’ research in relation to instances of mediated leisure culture, it reflects on conceptual imprecision and potential contradictions in the Declaration as indicative of wider problems in the disciplinary field. Leisure studies researchers are enjoined to avoid complicity in promoting both dystopian and utopian versions of globalization theory, and sceptically to assess the complex interaction of globalizing and other macro/micro processes. The article concludes by arguing for a wide‐ranging, critically reflexive leisure studies research agenda supported by principled strategic interventions in leisure power relations.     

Perceived Parental Control,Restructuring Ability,and Leisure Motivation: A Cross-Cultural Comparison

ABSTRACT

Leisure is viewed worldwide as an important developmental context for adolescents. As leisure research and programs are shared across nations, it is crucial to examine the cultural equivalence of leisure-related constructs and how they are related. Grounded in self-determination theory, this study explored the influence of perceived parental control and leisure restructuring ability on leisure motivation (amotivation and autonomous motivation) using samples of eighth grade adolescents in the United States and South Africa. Results of multiple-group structural equation modeling showed that the measurement model of the constructs was equivalent across the two samples, but the determinants of leisure motivation differed between the two samples. The findings provide implications for future cross-cultural research in leisure and offer insights on design and adaptation of leisure-based intervention and education programs in different cultural contexts.     

Leisure,income inequality and the Veblen effect: cross-national analysis of leisure time and sport and cultural activity

This paper was prompted by the publication in Britain in 2009 of The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always do Better, by Richard Wilkinson and Kate Pickett, which attracted considerable comment, both positive and negative and both substantive and methodological. The book claimed to show that, on a range of health and social measures of well-being, rich countries with more equal income distributions tended to perform better than those with less equal income distributions. Leisure time and behaviour were not among the indicators of well-being included and, while some researchers have sought to fill this gap, the range of leisure indicators used to date has been limited. This paper examines the relationship between income inequality and leisure time on a world-wide basis, and ten measures of cultural participation and two of sport and physical recreation participation in European countries. Efforts are made to address some of the methodological criticisms which have been made of The Spirit Level. It is found that more equal countries have more leisure time and higher levels of participation in cultural and sporting activities, and that there are also significant relationships with absolute Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per head and with religious-related values. The extent to which variations in leisure time and participation are related to income inequality is linked to Thorstein Veblen’s theory of pecuniary emulation, referred to as the ‘Veblen effect’.     

Rojek,the sociological imagination and leisure

This article traces the historical development of Chris Rojek's writing and documents his distinctive contribution to contemporary debates about postmodern culture. Rojek has consistently sought to develop a coherent sociology of leisure and has sought to apply his sociological imagination to develop leisure studies as a field of study. However, there seems to be an ambivalence or reluctance to engage with Rojek's work on leisure theory. From the outset, his work is both critical and subversive as he challenges ‘conventional wisdom’, which associates leisure with free time and freedom. He argues that both concepts need to be contextualized and any quest for a universal theory of leisure is both illusory and idealistic - one cannot dislocate free time or quality of experience from the social and historical context in which it occurs. Rojek also takes to task critical paradigms of feminism and cultural studies, whilst favouring the contribution that postmodern perspectives can make to understanding leisure practices. The article traces the development of his ideas theorising about leisure by reviewing his seminal texts, Capitalism and Social Theory (1985), Ways of Escape (1993), Decentring Leisure (1995) and most recently, Leisure and Culture (2000).     

Research note: Functions of privacy in Australian wilderness environments

Evidence suggests that leisure activities can be used as a means for coping with stress, but how leisure is used as an effective way to regulate difficult tasks is still unclear. Self-Determination Theory was used as a theoretical framework to propose two distinct approaches to regulatory leisure coping: the Planned-Breather Leisure Coping Style and the Avoidant Leisure Coping Style. The two proposed dimensions were tested and supported using a new scale with a university student population. Findings obtained in these studies suggested that regulatory orientation in a particular context was distinctively associated with the two proposed leisure coping styles and to different affective consequences following the regulation of a difficult task.     

Empowerment,Resistance, and Leisure among Latino Student Organizations

ABSTRACT

The goal of the study was to examine leisure, empowerment, and resistance among members of Latino student organizations. The study examined how the process of empowerment is being achieved and what roles leisure plays in the empowerment process. Focus groups were conducted with 26 representatives of four Latino student organizations on a campus of a large midwestern university. The findings showed that the empowerment was being achieved by helping students adjust to the university life and succeed in college, by strengthening their cultural heritage and teaching others about the Latino culture, and by helping local underprivileged communities. Leisure was used to foster bonds among group members, to showcase groups' cultural heritage, to make activities organized for others more attractive, and as a form of fundraising and attracting new members.     

From Friday to Sunday: the hacker ethic and shifting notions of labour,leisure and intellectual property

Leisure studies scholars have theorised how the Web is changing leisure experiences, and this essay continues that work by discussing the Web and shifting notions of leisure, labour and intellectual property. Much online activity is described under the umbrella term of ‘piracy’. By discussing online cultural production in terms of what Pekka Himanen calls the hacker ethic, we can rethink rhetorics of piracy and better understand the positive and negative aspects of online activities. Rather than thinking of online activity as derivative, we can reframe Web texts as doing what all cultural texts do – build upon the past. The ethic of the Web is built on a hacker approach to work, play, collaboration, intellectual property. Facebook applications and Wikipedia entries are just two examples of Web users’ embrace of the hacker ethic. But is this labour or leisure? Is Wikipedia, a text edited and maintained by volunteers, the result of work or play? Himanen provides a new way to view online activities that sit in between the categories of labour and leisure. Further, the hacker ethic allows us to understand the contested terms of labour and leisure alongside a third contested term: intellectual property. This paper provides a framework to help us better understand the new immaterial aspects of leisure activity happening on the Web. A discussion of these activities in terms of the hacker ethic allows scholars to explore shifting notions of labour, leisure and intellectual property without resorting to rhetorics of piracy.     

Ways of Experiencing Leisure

This study used phenomenography to describe different experiences of leisure meanings and to interpret experiences in terms of the complexity in understanding. Four multi-dimensional experiences differing in their phenomenal, contextual, and temporal relations were described. Leisure as achieving fulfillment was judged the most complex understanding, followed by escaping pressure, exercising choice and passing time. More complex understandings resulted in fewer distinctions between leisure and other phenomena, higher levels of contextual diversity and inclusivity in meanings, and greater flexibility in temporal awareness of leisure. Results suggest meanings can be operationalized as a continuum of experiences that display a progression in understanding.     

Nature-based recreation associated with connectedness to nature and leisure satisfaction among students in Brazil

ABSTRACT

There is growing evidence that nature-based recreation (NBR) during childhood promotes connectedness to nature, which in turn fuels NBR during adulthood. In addition to providing a number of health benefits, NBR participation may enhance leisure satisfaction, an important predictor of happiness and life satisfaction. In this exploratory study, we tested these hypothesised links using a path model with a cross-sectional sample of 224 Brazilian college students, where NBR participation during childhood increases connectedness to nature and NBR participation during adulthood, which in turn promotes leisure satisfaction. The model fit the data well χ² (2) = 1.924, χ²/df = 0.962 (N = 220, p = .38), CFI = 1.00, AGFI = .978, GFI = .996, and RMSEA = .00, with results showing an indirect positive link between NBR during childhood and leisure satisfaction, and a direct link between NBR during adulthood and leisure satisfaction. The indirect effect of connectedness to nature on leisure satisfaction was also significant: NBR during childhood fostered connectedness to nature, which motivated NBR during adulthood and higher levels of leisure satisfaction. Leisure practitioners can improve people’s leisure satisfaction by promoting engagement in NBR activities across life stages and emphasising connection to nature.     

Cultural Commonality and Specificity in Japanese and Euro-Canadian Undergraduate Students' Leisure Experiences: An Exploratory Study on Control and Positive Affect

Accumulated cross-cultural research indicates that North Americans typically emphasize primary control (e.g., changing the environment) and high-arousal positive affect (e.g., enthusiasm), whereas East Asians typically emphasize secondary control (e.g., adjusting oneself, accepting the environment) and low-arousal positive affect (e.g., calmness). Therefore, the purpose of this exploratory experience sampling method study was to examine cultural similarities and differences in Japanese (n = 41) and Euro-Canadian (n = 15) undergraduate students' control and positive affect as leisure experience. Results indicated that during leisure versus non-leisure participation, (a) both Japanese and Euro-Canadians experienced primary control and high-arousal positive affect more and secondary control (acceptance) less, and (b) Japanese alone experienced secondary control (adjustment) and low-arousal positive affect more. This cross-cultural study contributes to the leisure studies field, both theoretically and practically, by identifying cultural commonality and specificity in leisure experiences as well as leisure's potential role in enhancing psychological well-being.     

Race,gender, and leisure benefits

This study investigated the relationship between race, gender, and 7 leisure benefits that are based on a Benefits Approach to Leisure (BAL) framework. A random sample of 47 blocks from a southern metropolitan census tract composed of racially integrated middle‐class neighborhoods yielded 99 African American and 107 European American households who rated statements representing 7 leisure benefits on a Likert‐type scale. Using 2‐tailed t tests, with an F (folded) statistic to test for equality of the 2 variances, significant differences (p < .05) between middle‐class African Americans and middle‐class European Americans were found on 4 of 7 leisure benefit scales (57%): relaxation, diversion, self‐expression, and social interaction. When gender was considered, African American and European American middle‐class men differed significantly (p < .05) on relaxation and self‐expression scales, whereas middle‐class women differed significantly (p < .05) on social interaction and self‐esteem scales. The 7 leisure benefit areas were ranked according to perceived importance; a strong association (R = .86, p < .05) was shown between the racial groups. Gender showed considerable effect on the ranking of preferred leisure benefits among middle‐class African Americans but was of limited value when comparing middle‐class European American rankings.     

Revisiting Family Leisure Research and Critical Reflections on the Future of Family-Centered Scholarship

ABSTRACT

In this special issue of Leisure Sciences, we examine the progress made and challenges ahead in research on leisure and families—20 years revisited. We consider what advancements have been made in family leisure research and potential new directions that family-centered scholars can look towards. We also consider the dominance of particular theoretical perspectives and methodological designs, and the limitations and consequences of such perspectives, to understand the complexities, diversity, and richness of the lived family experience. Emphasis is placed on the need for scholarship that explores diverse constructions of family and to provide a call to action for family-centered scholars to engage with broader global social issues.     

Street Corner Society: Leisure Careers,Youth (Sub)culture and Social Exclusion

Abstract

This paper draws upon qualitative research with ‘socially excluded’ young people in the North East of England. It proposes that the concept and study of ‘leisure careers’ is useful in understanding the transitions, (sub)cultural experiences and identities of social groups like this. The empirical focus is upon the significance of leisure careers in the neighbourhood‐based, social networks of some criminally involved, socially excluded young adults. Theoretically, we argue that a focus on leisure careers, as part of a broad, holistic approach to youth transitions, can help overcome some of the problems that currently affect youth studies. In particular, fuller examination of shifting, leisure‐based activities and identities within studies of youth transition may help bridge the analytical divide between that tradition of youth research and that which focuses primarily on youth culture and identity.     

Leisure and Active Lifestyles: Research Reflections

Leisure researchers have been studying active living for many years. The research, however, has focused more on individual factors than social and environmental determinants that enable physical activity and health. The focus of the introduction to this special issue on “leisure and active lifestyles” is to highlight leisure literature that can be directly tied to active living. These dimensions include outdoor recreation, community recreation areas and facilities, time usage, barriers and constraints, and social interdependence. We provide an overview of the significance of the papers in this special issue and offer some reflections regarding future research related to active living, physical activity, health, and leisure. We underline the value of the holistic approach evident in leisure research and call for broader methods and more collaborative transdisciplinary research.     

Preferred Leisure Type,Value Orientations,and Psychological Well-Being Among East Asian Youth

ABSTRACT

This study investigated preferred leisure type and its associations with value orientations and psychological well-being (PWB) among adolescents in South Korea, China, and Japan (N = 6,157). Chi-square analyses were performed to examine differences in preferred leisure type (i.e., active vs. passive) across countries. Overall, adolescents preferred passive to active leisure. A series of logistic regressions showed that students who value religion (Japanese and Korean), community (Chinese), and same-sex friends (Chinese) were more likely to prefer active leisure. Furthermore, active leisure pursuit was associated with high PWB among adolescents in all three countries. Though some of the findings support previous studies suggesting cultural differences in leisure, values, and PWB, similar patterns were observed in the associations between variables among Korean, Chinese, and Japanese adolescents.     

Creating Distance from Body Issues: Exploring New Materialist Feminist Possibilities for Renegotiating Gendered Embodiment

Abstract

The body’s active role in the production of gendered embodiments is a key focus for feminist cultural studies and leisure studies. The article draws on new materialist feminist scholarship to explore how gender relations are produced and negotiated in physical culture through one case study example taken from a wider study of young people’s experiences of the body and self-image over time. The article explores how gendered embodiment is assembled through the socio-material circumstances of everyday life. For one particiapnt, 'Ann', “creating distance” from appearance concerns was an embodied process which involved new practices and encounters (e.g., walking for leisure, reading feminist literature) and relationships and engagements with others (e.g., a partner, friends, family). The potential for feminism to open possibilities to imagine the body otherwise is also discussed in relation to recent efforts to foster social justice imperatives in leisure sciences and feminist physical cultural studies.     

Polluted Leisure

Abstract

Leisure now involves becoming-with pollution. In this article, I work with the concept of “polluted leisure” to better understand and respond to the enmeshment of pollution and leisure in late capitalist societies. Pollution and leisure are argued to be mutually shaping. Evidence for the argument is provided through a pilot study of “intoxicated” surfers at a postindustrial site. The study proceeds through a more-than-human paradigm. Nonhuman and material agencies are fused with socio-economic (specifically capitalism) and human subjectivity issues, for example, gender (specifically masculinity). A “wet ethnography,” an experimental multimedia transdisciplinary methodology, is employed to notice and articulate the dynamic complexity. It is concluded that the busyness of pollution complicates leisure discourses that bifurcate nature and society, natural and artificial, subject and object that shape environmental politics, sustainability efforts, and notions of wellbeing achieved through encounters with Blue Spaces.     

To be or to refuse to be? Exploring the concept of leisure as resistance for young people who are visually impaired

This study explored the concept of leisure as resistance to social constraints of blindness. Leisure, because of its relative freedoms, has been conceptualised as a forum in which dominant cultural discourses and stereotypes can be challenged or resisted. A post-structural analysis of the leisure narratives of five young people who are blind revealed that they intentionally used aspects of leisure to resist some constraints and stereotypes of disability. Three strategies were identified: advocacy, redefinition and passing. Advocacy targeted other people’s beliefs; yet, some activities done to resist dominant discourses actually perpetuated them. Redefinition was a covert strategy to show themselves that they could be the same as everyone else. Passing was used in different ways. One young person used it when advocating, another to maintain social connections. However, maintaining social connections by passing was often at the cost of enjoyment, engagement and perceptions of ability. Empowerment through resistance in leisure related primarily to gains in self-confidence. These gains in self-confidence have the potential to contribute to social interactions and perhaps influence some of the discourses that operate as ‘truths’ about people who are blind.