Factors affecting consumption of raw or undercooked foods in restaurants

ABSTRACT

As consumers increase their consumption of Food and Drug Administration defined risky foods, more restaurants have begun to offer risky foods. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of cultural norms, experience, and knowledge on risky foods. This study measured the effect of perceived food riskiness on the likelihood of consuming risky foods with personal risk-taking level as a moderating variable. Results suggest that consumer perceptions of risky foods affect the likelihood of consumption. Perception is affected by three factors; cultural norm, experience, and knowledge. Results of this study can help restaurant managers better understand which consumers are interested in risky foods, the reasons why these consumers are interested in risky foods, and perhaps to whom to market risky foods most effectively and efficiently.     

Antecedents of loyalty toward rural hospitality enterprises: The moderating effect of the customer's previous experience

This paper aims to identify the consumer behavior variables and the moderating effect of customers’ previous experience that generate greater customer loyalty toward rural hospitality enterprises. A model is proposed that encompasses the moderating effect of customer experience on the relationships between: the functional and affective perceived value of the firm's offer; the firm's reputation; and customer satisfaction – and the effect of these variables on loyalty-driven behaviors (recommendation and repurchase intentions). The work finds that functional and affective perceived value influence reputation and satisfaction, and that this effect is moderated by the customer's experience. When they have prior experience of the firm, affective perceived value takes precedence over functional perceived value. However, functional perceived value constitutes the most valued element when customers are using the services of the firm for the first time. Reputation and satisfaction are also found to contribute to the generation of better recommendation and repurchase intentions.     

Destination risk perceptions among U.S. residents for London as the host city of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games

Risks associated with the Olympic Games have been studied; however, there is lack of research that examines prospective tourists' perceptions of a host city in terms of destination risk. To examine prospective tourists' destination risk perceptions for the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, a survey of 4000 American residents was conducted. Overall, U.S. residents perceived the host city to be safe. Hierarchical regression revealed that demographic factors were drivers of the intention to travel to an Olympic Games host city. While controlling for demographics, past experience traveling to a host city and attending an Olympic Games affected the likelihood to travel. Three destination risk perception items were drivers of the intention to travel to a host city, when controlling for demographics and past experience. Lastly, when controlling for all the independent variables, travel risk type index was a driver of the intention to travel to an Olympic Games host city.     

High Mountain Adventure Tourism: Trekkers’ Perceptions of Risk and Death in Mt. Everest Region,Nepal

This study examines trekkers' perceptions of risk and death associated with high mountain adventure tourism based on their actual experience during the trek to the Everest Base Camp. The study is based on the authors' fieldwork conducted during April to May 2014. Interview questions focused on trekkers' perceptions of risks associated with their own activities, and the risks taken by professional mountaineers and Sherpa guides. Results show that trekkers realized the differences in risks associated with climbing and trekking, and celebrated the accounts of risk taken by the mountaineers. But when risk was self-experienced during the trek, celebration turned into fear and emotional distress. Trekkers generally held foreign mountaineers with much higher reverence than Sherpa climbers. The study concludes with the suggestion that more research is needed to examine the dynamic emotional state of adventure tourists, commodification of high mountain adventure, and understanding local perspectives of adventure tourists.     

The Role of Expected Outcomes in the Formation of Behavioral Intentions in the Green-Hotel Industry

Despite customers' increasing environmental concerns and demand for green products in the lodging industry, there has been a lack of research undertaken to identify critical factors in hotel consumers' eco-friendly decision-making processes. The present study was designed to identify the expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel from a customer's perspective and to examine the relationships between the identified factors and behavioral intentions (i.e., visit intention and word-of-mouth intention). To achieve these objectives, this study used both qualitative (a focus group) and quantitative (survey and regression analysis) methodological approaches. A total of seven expected outcomes were identified through the focus group. An online survey of U.S. hotel customers was conducted. The results of the regression analysis evidenced that hotel customers' expected outcomes of staying at a green hotel had a positive influence on behavioral intentions, which demonstrated the role of expected outcomes as direct antecedents of behavioral intentions and as an immediate reason for choosing a green hotel over a non-conventional hotel. Findings from an additional analysis indicated that healthy guestrooms, eco-friendly practices, and reduced expenses were positively associated with visit intention. Further, healthy guestrooms, reduced expenses, organic foods, and environmental protection had a positive and significant impact on word-of-mouth intention.     

A Critical Investigation of the Bargaining Behavior of Tourists: The Case of Hong Kong Open-Air Markets

Shopping has long been recognized as an indispensable tourist activity. Hong Kong's open-air markets, where a multitude of bargaining activities can be observed, ranked as the second most popular of the island territory's diverse range of attractions in 2008 in terms of tourist arrivals. To develop cutting-edge marketing strategies that promote tourists' enjoyment of their bargaining adventure and ultimately enhance the overall shopping experience, the study reported in this article was aimed at identifying the dimensions underlying tourists' perceptions of the importance of 18 bargaining motivators and 12 bargaining attitudes and types of bargaining behavior, respectively, and subsequently evaluating the predictability of these underlying dimensions on tourists' shopping contentment indicators (overall bargaining satisfaction, the likelihood of a subsequent visit, and the likelihood of recommending open-air markets to others). A non-probability quota sampling technique was used to survey 203 Asian and non-Asian tourists in Hong Kong. A multivariate approach encompassing factor analysis and multiple regression was employed: Factor analysis delineated four underlying dimensions of factors affecting bargaining intentions. “Value for money” was shown to be the factor rated most important to tourists' bargaining intention; similarly, two underlying dimensions of bargaining attitudes and behavior—“bargain for psychological well-being” and “bargaining intensity”—were identified. Multiple regression results indicated the statistical significance of “bargaining for psychological well-being” and “bargaining intensity” to the existence of positive relations between shopping contentment indicators.     

Seeing history: a visual assessment of the historic-grounding of Old Western tourist towns

Despite the significant role that the visual plays in the experience of tourism, few studies have specifically examined the visual appearances of heritage tourist destinations. This study sought to analyze how historically grounded the visual appearances were of two heritage tourist towns in the state of Arizona: Tombstone and Jerome. These towns were both mining towns that experienced historic booms during the days of the American Old West and survive today as tourist destinations. This study utilized a detailed visual comparison of historic and contemporary town photographs in order to assess the relative historic-grounding of building exteriors and streets. It also incorporated the findings of interviews with tourists and town residents regarding their perceptions of visual historic-grounding. Study findings offered a means to assess and compare visual historic-grounding. Additionally, they suggested that while visual historic-grounding was important to visitors, it was one of several factors influencing their perceptions of the town's historic appearance: visual appeal, personal reflections, engaging activities, and previous visitor expectations of the American Old West (often grounded in filmic-representations) worked together to visually communicate a general impression of history within each town.     

Urban air pollution in China: destination image and risk perceptions

Inbound tourist arrivals into China have been declining in recent years, possibly in response to increasing levels of urban air pollution. To examine Westerners’ contemporary views on China as a travel destination, with a particular focus on air pollution, this research surveyed 600 US and Australian residents. An online panel survey collected data on cognitive and affective destination image, cognitive and affective risk perceptions, intention to visit China and key demographic variables. The findings show that, while China's cognitive image attributes were perceived positively, potential travellers expressed negative views about travel risks in China in general and about air quality in particular. Importantly, feelings towards the risk of air quality had a significant negative impact on destination image as well as intention to visit China. The research contributes to theory by highlighting the importance of considering affective risk perceptions in destination image studies. While some market segments seemed less sensitive to air pollution than others, this paper concludes that unless China proactively addresses the problem of air pollution, for example by seeking to stimulate positive feelings, international arrivals may continue to be compromised.     

Barriers to offering special interest tour products to the Chinese outbound group market

As Chinese outbound tourists expand in numbers and diversity, they may seek more challenging special interest tourism (SIT) activities. Tourists' participation in SIT activities can be profitable to a wider range of providers, enhance destination image, and enrich tourists' experiences. This research investigated the opportunities for offering SIT products to the China outbound group market by interviewing 20 Chinese outbound tour operators to examine the extent of interest in developing the product as well as factors driving or hindering the development. Findings revealed four types of barriers that influence operators’ willingness to incorporate SIT activities in their product offerings. Drawing on a critical social theory approach that focuses on 'enlightenment' and 'critique', this paper argues the validity of these perceived barriers - operators are risk-averse for institutionalised practical, social, cultural, and policy-related reasons.     

Destination image as a mediator between perceived risks and revisit intention: A case of post-disaster Japan

Despite the significance of perceived travel risk and destination image, relatively few studies address the effect of perceived travel risks on the formation of destination image, and the mediating role of destination image. This study draws new insights by examining (1) the effects of perceived risks on destination image, and (2) the mediating role of destination image between perceived risks and revisit intention of repeat tourists to a risky destination. With perceived risk and destination image being empirically distinctive constructs, findings revealed that perceived socio-psychological and financial risks influenced both cognitive and affective destination images. Perceived physical risk did not have a significant influence on destination image, although it directly affected revisit intention. Additionally, destination image significantly mediated the relationships between two risks, namely, perceived socio-psychological and financial risks, and revisit intention. Several managerial implications concerning the management of risk perceptions and the promotion of risky destinations are discussed in this study.     

Mechanism of customer value in restaurant consumption: Employee hospitality and entertainment cues as boundary conditions

Food quality and employee task performance have been demonstrated to positively influence customer evaluations of restaurant dining experience. This study extends previous research by incorporating customer affective responses to examine the mediating processes underlying the relationships between customer perceptions of task performance/food quality and perceived value. The moderating influences of employee hospitality and entertainment cues on the relationships between customer perceptions of task performance/food quality and their affective responses were also examined. Results from surveying 308 customers of full-service restaurants showed that customer affective responses mediate the relationships between task performance/food quality and perceived value. The results also indicated that the relationship between food quality and affective responses increases with employee hospitability. However, employee hospitability negatively moderates the relationship between task performance and affective responses. Additionally, strong entertainment cues positively reinforce the relationship between task performance and affective responses, but do not significantly affect the relationship between food quality and affective responses.     

Check-in at the Robo-desk: Effects of automated social presence on social cognition and service implications

The rise of humanoid robots in hospitality services accelerates the need to understand related consumer reactions. Four scenario-based experiments, building on social presence and social cognition theories, examine how humanoid robots (vs. self-service machines) shape consumer service perceptions vis-à-vis concurrent presence/absence of human staff. The influence of consumers' need for human interaction and technology readiness is also examined. We find that anthropomorphizing service robots positively affects expected service quality, first-visit intention, willingness to pay, as well as increasing warmth/competence inferences. However, these effects are contingent on the absence of human frontline staff, explained by viewing anthropomorphism as a relative concept. Humanoid robots increase psychological risk, but this poses no threat to expected service quality when consumers' need for human interaction is controlled for. Additionally, we show that a humanoid robot's effect on expected service quality is positive for all but low technology readiness levels. Further implications for theory/practice are discussed.     

The moderating role of nationality on destination experience

ABSTRACT

Differences in tourists’ cultural values are significant factors in their product and service choices, yet they have generally been neglected in the literature. Therefore, this study examined how tourists’ nationalities influence their perceptions of service quality, affective image perceptions, and revisiting intentions. Activities were found to be more determinant on a destination’s affective image for Russian tourists, whereas accommodation, hospitality, and language communication services had a larger effect on German tourists.     

Examining the influence of the social dimension of customer experience on trust towards travel agencies: The role of experiential predisposition in a multichannel context

Conducted in an integrated multichannel environment (in-agency and online), this research expands topical literature by exploring the influence of traveller experiential predispositions (cognitive and affective/sensory) on the social dimension of customer experience in the travel agency sector. The article also investigates the influence of social experience on levels of customer trust in travel agency providers. An online survey is conducted with 289 individuals having visited a travel agency and used an agency's website. Findings point to affective/sensory predisposition positively influencing social experience with results varying based on context (in-agency vs online). Cognitive predisposition proves to exert no impact, while results further substantiate the influence of social experience on trust. Research findings enrich existing multichannel literature and engage a more in-depth examination of the important if oft-neglected social dimension of customer experience.     

Responses to replica (vs. genuine) touristic experiences

A growing trend in tourism is the use of replica experiences. Yet, consumers' responses to replica (vs. genuine) touristic experiences are mostly overlooked in the literature. In this paper, we propose that consumers' perceptions of authenticity of the replica (vs. genuine) touristic experiences mediate their responses to these experiences. We define three theoretically driven factors that influence the authenticity perceptions of consumers—experience characteristics (restricted experience vs. not restricted experience; within close vs. distant geographical proximity to the genuine) and a consumer characteristic (salient goal: collecting experiences vs. having fun/pleasure), which influence consumers' responses to replica and genuine touristic experiences. We found support for the proposed theory using two field studies from Egypt's Luxor Tutankhamun tomb and three experimental studies.     

Effect of Event Service Quality and Satisfaction on Happiness Among Runners of a Recurring Sport Event

The consumption of sport events through direct participation can influence participants’ perception of happiness with that experiential purchase given the time and resources invested in that experience. The purpose of the study was to examine how sport event service quality aspects operationalized through the physical environment, interaction, and outcome factors influence overall satisfaction with the event and experiential happiness. Data were collected from 300 runners who participated in 5k and 10k races. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed the positive effect of outcome and physical environment factors on satisfaction with the event and the positive influence of event satisfaction and outcome quality on experiential happiness. The overall expectations on the quality of the event experience can be a focus for event managers aiming to achieve social marketing goals related to positive psychology from the event participation.     

The impacts of geographic and social influences on review helpfulness perceptions: A social contagion perspective

Identifying and presenting helpful reviews to customers can significantly affect their purchase decisions. Although review helpfulness has been extensively explored in tourism research, extant studies have not sufficiently emphasized the unique characteristics of tourism products and investigated review helpfulness perceptions from both geographic and social influence perspectives. In this study, drawing on social contagion theory, we developed a theoretical framework to examine the impact of social contagion, specifically geographic and social proximities, on perceived review helpfulness. Our empirical analyses of Yelp restaurant reviews indicated that geographic and social influences have varying impacts on review helpfulness perceptions. Additionally, social contagions significantly moderated the impacts of various review- and reviewer-related factors, and product characteristics further moderated the contagion effect on perceived review helpfulness. This study provides valuable theoretical and methodological contributions to research on review helpfulness, especially in tourism contexts, and lays out the practical implications for various stakeholders.     

The effects of ethical leadership on manager job satisfaction,commitment, behavioral outcomes,and firm performance

This study investigates the effects of ethical leadership on a hotel middle manager's job satisfaction and affective commitment, which in turn influence that manager's behavioral outcomes (e.g., extra effort and turnover intention) that can also impact the hotel's performance. Mail surveys were distributed to 30 U.S. hotels, representing more than 8 different national and international brands, and 324 middle managers participated in the survey. This study demonstrates that executives’ ethical leadership is positively related to their middle managers’ job satisfaction and their affective organizational commitment. Middle managers’ job satisfaction is positively related to organizational commitment, but job satisfaction does not necessarily lead to their willingness to exert extra effort. The positive linkage between middle managers’ extra effort and the hotel's competitive performance is also confirmed.     

Why People Play at Work: A Theoretical Examination of Leisure-at-Work

ABSTRACT

Postmodern perspectives on work and leisure acknowledge the interwoven nature of these domains, an example being the increasing number of organizations intentionally incorporating leisure into the employee experience. Existing research, however, provides no specific theoretical guidance regarding the potential impacts of strategically integrating recreation activities into the work domain. Thus, based on positive organizational scholarship and leisure science theories, we build an individual level model describing the phenomenon of leisure-at-work (LAW). We propose LAW activities have the ability to produce feelings of personal expressiveness at work as moderated by employees' perceptions of the activities. Personal expressiveness then mediates LAW activities' ability to promote the development of organizational commitment, work engagement, and resilience among employees.     

Parents' Perceptions of Family members' Relative Influence in Vacation Decision Making

The purpose of this study is to examine spouses' perceptions of the relative influence exerted by family members across eight vacation sub decisions. The study also examines the ability of selected family structural characteristics to predict parents' perceptions of children's influence in vacation decision-making. The results generally support the notion that most vacation decision-making between spouses is syncretic, although differences did exist. In addition, children's perceived influence was found to be positively related to their age and parents' years of education. Marketing implications for tourism managers are discussed.