The impact of ethnic tourism on gender roles: A comparison between the Bai and the Mosuo of Yunnan province,PRC

The purpose of this exploratory study is to examine how ethnic tourism is impacting host women in two destinations in Yunnan. To accomplish this, the paper compares the perceived impacts of ethnic tourism on women from a matriarchal and a patriarchal host community. The findings reveal that tourism income had a greater effect on women from a patriarchal community and that both groups of women reported several other non-economic impacts. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Urban region parks and black minorities: Subculture,marginality, and interracial relations in park use in the Detroit metropolitan area

Abstract

This paper compares participation in Detroit city parks and surrounding regional parks by black and white Detroit residents. Black Detroit residents participate more than whites in Detroit city parks, but less than whites in surrounding region parks. The paper explores a variety of explanations for these findings including “marginality”; (economic barriers), subcultural preferences, and interracial relations. Marginality plays some role in explaining underrepresentation by black Detroit residents in regional parks, primarily through restricted access to automobile transport, rather than income effects directly. Subcultural preferences, as measured in this study, do not seem to explain differences in black and white participation. However, measures of sub‐culture were less robust than measures of other factors. Interracial relations factors do seem to play a role in explaining underrepresentation by minorities in regional parks. Implications for research and urban outdoor recreation policy are explored.     

Making ethnic tourism good for the poor

How can ethnic tourism alleviate rural poverty? Due to the difficulty of simultaneously expanding tourism while promoting pro-poor tourism, most villages traverse one of two developmental pathways: 1) ensuring an inclusive structure before expanding, or 2) expanding before building an inclusive structure. This study compares four comparable cases in Southwestern China to understand the politics behind the decision to choose different pathways, and the impact each pathways has on local residents. While the first pathway requires a careful balance to maintain a pro-poor structure as tourism volume expands, the second pathway presents apparently insurmountable barriers to poverty reduction due to the lack of political will to change the structures of successful tourism industries in ways that include the poor.     

Leisure,gender and family: the influence of social policy

A number of authors have recently called for reconsideration of the way in which gender and the family are investigated within leisure studies. This paper proposes that future analyses should include more explicit recognition of the ideological and practical influence of social policy on contemporary gender relations. The paper suggests that social policy has particular significance for debates within leisure studies, about the relationship between men and women's market and domestic labour, and their access to leisure. The paper investigates the influence of social policy on male and female adult life patterns through comparative analysis of social policy interventions and labour market outcomes in the economically advanced nations. It focusses on the policy stance in relation to paid work, especially maternal and paternal employment. It is shown that ‘family-related’ social policies universally support fathers' employment, but vary in the extent to which they encourage mothers' labour market activity. The implications of this for gender differentiation in leisure are explored through analysis of cross-national data for male and female sports participation in Europe. The analysis shows a strong correlation between gender discrimination in family-related social policy, and differentials in male-female sports participation rates. The paper next considers the implications of policy intervention for divergence within the female population. A detailed case study of the UK examines how family-related policy may differentially affect women in different socio-economic situations. The paper concludes that whether family-related policies encourage women to see themselves primarily as caregivers within the family unit, or as citizens with individualized rights, is likely to affect both their sense of entitlement to personal leisure and their ability to access it.     

The ethnic composition of migration in the former Soviet Union

"This paper examines the impact of the disintegration of the Soviet Union on migration patterns within the newly independent states. Data on migration between Russia and the other 14 former Soviet republics are analyzed to reveal the magnitude and ethnic composition of migration after independence and to examine the assumption that Russians will tend to return to Russia, whereas members of other titular groups will emigrate to their respective newly independent states. The data suggest that nationalization not only pushes non-titular groups to emigrate from the former Soviet republics, but also pulls titular groups to immigrate to the newly independent states from Russia."     

Signaling authenticity of ethnic cuisines via handwriting

Ethnic cuisines have become increasingly popular among travelers. Given people's demand for authenticity in ethnic dining, this research proposes and examines handwriting as a menu presentation strategy that boosts perceived authenticity of menu offerings and in turn enhances purchase intention. To that end, we utilize a mixed-methods approach and investigate the joint effects of menu format (handwriting vs. print) and regulatory focus (promotion vs. prevention) in the context of ethnic dining. Based on qualitative and quantitative data, we show that ethnic restaurants using a handwritten (vs. printed) menu may enhance perceived authenticity and subsequently elevate purchase intention. However, such beneficial effects of handwriting only occur among prevention-focused customers, but not promotion-focused customers. Managerial implications for ethnic restaurant operators are discussed.     

Non-verbal communication in hospitality: At the intersection of religion and gender

Given the criticality of successful bilateral (guest–employee) interactions in the increasingly internationalised hospitality business environment, the overarching aim of this study is to determine whether religion (Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism, and Christianity) plays a role in how hotel employees’ non-verbal communication is perceived by guests. In addition, we are interested in understanding perceptions of hotel employees’ non-verbal behaviour from the perspective of the intersection of religion and gender. This exploratory research is based on cross-sectional data collected from 384 hotel guests in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Results showed that Christian guests perceived proxemics, physical appearance and paralanguage of hotel employees less favourably than Muslim guests did. Effects of religion on kinesics and proxemics also depended on gender. Implications are discussed theoretically in terms of cross-religious discourse and practically in terms of workforce training.     

Race,gender, and leisure benefits

This study investigated the relationship between race, gender, and 7 leisure benefits that are based on a Benefits Approach to Leisure (BAL) framework. A random sample of 47 blocks from a southern metropolitan census tract composed of racially integrated middle‐class neighborhoods yielded 99 African American and 107 European American households who rated statements representing 7 leisure benefits on a Likert‐type scale. Using 2‐tailed t tests, with an F (folded) statistic to test for equality of the 2 variances, significant differences (p < .05) between middle‐class African Americans and middle‐class European Americans were found on 4 of 7 leisure benefit scales (57%): relaxation, diversion, self‐expression, and social interaction. When gender was considered, African American and European American middle‐class men differed significantly (p < .05) on relaxation and self‐expression scales, whereas middle‐class women differed significantly (p < .05) on social interaction and self‐esteem scales. The 7 leisure benefit areas were ranked according to perceived importance; a strong association (R = .86, p < .05) was shown between the racial groups. Gender showed considerable effect on the ranking of preferred leisure benefits among middle‐class African Americans but was of limited value when comparing middle‐class European American rankings.     

Tourism,handicrafts, and ethnic identity in Micronesia

This study examines the contemporary interactions in Micronesia between tourism, the production of handicrafts, and native perceptions of their culture and society in relation to foreigners. Special attention is given to the traditional distinctions made between mundane everyday handicrafts and highly valued products made by master artisans. Changes in the status of the latter products and their producers have occured as a result of varied colonial governments' policies affecting local economies. These political changes in the Twentieth Century with their attendant social and economic consequences as Micronesia approached political independence and a growing emphasis on tourism are examined with regard to the changing nature of native-foreign interactions and ethnic identity. The study suggests that the careful examination of the manner in which the local handicraft production system has changed can provide an important perspective on concurrent changes in ethnic identity.     

Understanding authentication processes and the role of conventions: a consideration of Greek ethnic restaurants

Drawing on convention and social identity theories, this paper explores how actors utilize conventions and identities to claim legitimacy and defend their judgements in processes of hot authentication. It does this through a qualitative study of Greek ethnic restaurants, considering both in-group (Greek restaurant owners and diaspora diners) and out-group (tourist and non-Greek) perspectives. We identify three orders of worth (market, domestic and inspirational) which embody contrasting notions of authenticity (pragmatic iconicity, ancestral indexicality and innovative iconicity, respectively). Each order of worth incorporates notions of quality as well as legitimate actors in authentication processes. While hot authentication is a diffuse process, some actors nonetheless possess privileged positions in particular orders of worth.     

Patterns of occupational segregation by gender in the hospitality industry

This paper investigates the different patterns of occupational gender segregation in the hospitality industry in Andalusia. The methodology is based on the segregation curve and different segregation measures. The results show that cleaning jobs, customer service and jobs with less responsibility in the area of administration are dominated by women, whereas maintenance, jobs with a high level of responsibility in the areas of kitchen, restoration, and administration are dominated by men. Occupational segregation increases as the age of the workers and size of the establishment increase, but decreases with level of education and is less common among workers with training contracts, whereas it is greater among part-time and seasonal workers. Horizontal segregation is more marked than vertical segregation in the hotel industry, but horizontal and vertical segregation is similar in restaurants. Finally, vertical segregation decreases with the size of the establishment, whereas horizontal segregation increases.     

Pay gap by gender in the tourism industry of Brazil

This study aims to analyse wage gaps by gender in the Brazilian tourism sector. This involves investigating wage differences in order to identify the variables that determine the wages paid for these activities. We sourced our statistics from the micro-data collected by the National Household Sample Survey (PNAD), released by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) in 2012. We deployed the decomposition of Oaxaca (1973) and Blinder (1973) to measure the differences in wages within the sector. Through this decomposition, we conclude that gender pay discrimination exists in tourism in Brazil, demonstrating that women are less valued than men even when sharing the same job characteristics. As a result, we make policy recommendations and put forward suggestions for further research on the subject.     

Market orientation of small ethnic minority-owned hospitality firms

This paper seeks to evaluate the influence of changing co-ethnic consumer habits and the nature of competition on the market orientation of ethnic minority-owned hospitality firms in the UK. The paper reports and analyses the findings of 40 face-to-face interviews with Turkish small business owners. The findings of the study indicate that ethnic minority owned small firms operate within a strong socio-cultural environment. Not only co-ethnic customers and competitors but also both mainstream customers and competitors have a bearing on the market orientation of firms. Their market orientation is the result of the interplay between the changes in ethnic and mainstream business environments.     

Tourism and gender equality: An Asian perspective

This study analyzed the impact of tourism on gender equality based on data from 36 Asian countries over the period 2006–2018, using a system generalized method of moments estimation approach. The results demonstrate that tourism has a significant positive impact on gender equality. This impact was found to be greatest and most statistically significant in east and southeast Asian countries, followed by west and central Asian countries, and finally south Asian countries. The effects of control variables with respect to the economy, education, and employment on gender equality varied significantly across three subsamples. This study could inspire further multidisciplinary research in the field of tourism and gender equality, in turn promoting the richness of this critical tourism sub-field.     

Destination gender: Scale development and cross-cultural validation

Destination gender traits have attracted considerable attention in the tourism marketing literature, inspired by the concept of branding. A scale to measure destination gender with a Chinese sample is first developed and validated in this study. Then, the scale is tested with a Western sample for comparison. Results show that destination gender is a second-order construct encompassing two first-order constructs (i.e., masculinity and femininity) and their sub-dimensions. Ultimately, a 25-item Destination Gender Scale (DGS) is assembled with four sub-dimensions of masculinity (i.e., dominance, vigor, courage, and competence) and four sub-dimensions of femininity (i.e., grace, softness, gorgeousness, and kindheartedness). Nomological validity results suggest that destination gender is positively related to individuals’ actual/ideal gender identity congruity and revisit intentions irrespective of their biological sex. This study contributes to the destination branding literature by considering destination image through a gender-based lens and presenting a reliable tool to assess destination gender. Destination managers can apply these findings to develop efficient marketing tactics around salient destination gender traits.     

Stress and food choices: Examining gender differences and the time horizon framing effect

The number of people facing daily stress is on the rise in the United States. Further, there is increasing evidence of stress induced obesity and other food-related health risks. This study tested the effects of self-reported stress on choosing indulgent and healthy food options in the context of menu promotions at restaurants. The study proposed that time horizon message framing (expansive vs. limited) on restaurant menus influences the effectiveness of advertising messages aimed at preventing unhealthy food choices and promoting healthy choices. Further, this study examined gender differences in stress induced eating. The current findings shed new light on time horizon message framing, which encourages stressed consumers to make healthy choices. The results showed that food choices can be altered using time horizon messages. That is, stressed individuals tend to choose healthier options when the message is framed in terms of expansive time and more indulgent food than when the message is focused on a limited time frame. Restaurant managers are advised to establish creative marketing strategies to spur interest in healthy menu items and emphasize the benefits of healthy food items.     

Tourism as ethnic preservation: The Cajuns of Louisiana

This paper addresses the impact of tourism on the preservation of ethnic identity with specific reference to the Louisiana Cajuns. Tourism has helped the Cajuns retain a separate identity by reinforcing the differences between Cajuns and outsiders. Cajuns are increasingly relinquishing their traditional culture in favor of standard U.S. values, but they retain a strong sense of identity and ethnic pride. A growing tourist industry was institutionalized at about the same time as the development of ethnic pride, and the two phenomena have profoundly influenced each other. Cajuns have become tourists in their own culture, joining outsiders in seeking and celebrating their brand of “local color” Cajun culture is now enacted on a “tourist stage” for the benefit of locals and their visitors. The tourist stage is an arena for the expression of ethnic differences, and it helps perpetuate an ethnic boundary that might otherwise disappear due to acculturation. Using the Cajuns as a case study, this paper proposes a model for the process of ethnic preservation through tourism.     

Performing femininity: Women at the top (doing and undoing gender)

Tourism research has primarily treated gender as a male-female dichotomy and has been constrained by a heterosexual matrix for empirical inquires. Such research, however, has failed to acknowledge the fluidity and multiplicity in theorizing gender. To redress this overlook, this study moves away from the conventional binary thinking and views gender as a performativity which is resulted from repetitive social performance. By conducting multiple field observations and interviews with 17 hotel female general managers working in Mainland China and Taiwan, this research presents the ways of doing and undoing gender by tourism female leaders and the extent to which the everlasting gender logic can be questioned.     

Women in tourism: Shifting gender ideology in the DR

The purpose of this study is to explore the ways in which the employment of women in the tourism industry has challenged or reinforced the traditional machismo–marianismo gender ideology in the Dominican Republic. Semi-structured individual, coupled, and group interviews were conducted in 12 coastal communities to investigate residents’ perceptions about gender ideology as it intersects with the employment of women in tourism. The findings reveal tourism employment as a source of opportunity, with women gaining economic and social independence, but also conflict as women and men negotiate new gender roles and identities. Emphasizing issues such as the double workload, negotiating domestic tasks with partners, and tension resulting from employment, this study illuminates the pressing practical needs of Dominican women.