Mapping knowledge management and organizational learning in support of organizational memory

The normative literature within the field of knowledge management has concentrated on techniques and methodologies for allowing knowledge to be codified and made available to individuals and groups within organizations. The literature on organizational learning, however, has tended to focus on aspects of knowledge that are pertinent at the macro-organizational level (i.e. the overall business). The authors attempt in this paper to address a relative void in the literature, aiming to demonstrate the inter-locking factors within an enterprise information system that relate knowledge management and organizational learning, via a model that highlights key factors within such an inter-relationship. This is achieved by extrapolating data from a manufacturing organization using a case study, with these data then modeled using a cognitive mapping technique (fuzzy cognitive mapping, FCM). The empirical enquiry explores an interpretivist view of knowledge, within an information systems evaluation (ISE) process, through the associated classification of structural, interpretive and evaluative knowledge. This is achieved by visualizing inter-relationships within the ISE decision-making approach in the case organization. A number of decision paths within the cognitive map are then identified such that a greater understanding of ISE can be sought. The authors therefore present a model that defines a relationship between knowledge management (KM) and organizational learning (OL), and highlights factors that can lead a firm to develop itself towards a learning organization.     

Managing knowledge in industrial markets: New dimensions and challenges

Managing knowledge in industrial markets has become an increasingly important task in the last 10 years. Many industrial firms paid little attention to the topic, since it was felt that knowledge was easily handled internally and was a simple process. The growth of information technology that centered on the collection, analysis and dissemination of information during the 1990's and early 2000's has necessitated that managing knowledge be taken seriously by industrial marketing managers. By doing so industrial firms can make available increased knowledge content in the development and provision of products and services to industrial marketing managers on all levels of the firm, achieve shorter new product development cycles, and facilitate and manage organizational innovation and learning. This article outlines the new dimensions in knowledge management in industrial marketing that are important for industrial managers, academic researchers, and business firms to understand for the future.     

Knowledge-based sales management strategy and the grafting metaphor: Implications for theory and practice

An assessment of sales research reveals limited theoretical sophistication and grounding, less focus on intraorganizational issues, over emphasis on the micro (salesperson) versus the macro (sales function) aspects in sales management, and the criticality of knowledge to sales management. Although marketing literature draws on metaphors for theory development, there is very little sales management research that relies on metaphors for theory. In addition, reflecting the recent changes in the external environment, there have been several calls to research knowledge-based sales management. Therefore, this article explores knowledge grafting - a new theoretical metaphor - in the context of knowledge-based sales management. In doing so, first, we briefly overview the metaphor literature. Second, we introduce and evaluate the grafting metaphor. Third, we discuss the important issues of knowledge-based sales management. Fourth, we describe the knowledge grafting process and develop a knowledge grafting based conceptual framework in the context of sales management. Fifth, we discuss the strategic normative imperatives for practice. Finally, we conclude with a call for future research.     

The intersection of strategic management and supply chain management

Strategic management and supply chain management (SCM) have overlapping interests, yet there has been little exchange between them. We examine areas of overlap and suggest how insights from each field can complement and support the other. Specifically, several of strategic management's theories and its emphasis on explaining firm profits should be useful to SCM. SCM offers to strategic management a new level of analysis and possibly a new type of organization. Overall, we argue that increased interaction between these important areas will benefit knowledge development in both and thereby enhance organizations' ability to meet their goals.     

Knowledge management through the development of knowledge repositories: towards work degradation

This paper questions the consequences of the use of electronic knowledge repositories for work and employment. Drawing on critical research suggesting that knowledge management associated with such tools presents similarities to scientific management principles, it proposes to examine the following key research question: how do employees experience the transformation of the employment relationship when a knowledge repository is introduced to the workplace? The inquiry is grounded in an exploratory qualitative case study of a knowledge management system designed to foster knowledge‐sharing in a Belgian public administration. The findings illustrate two complementary outcomes: this system resulted in employees experiencing deskilling and work degradation, and was met with resistance. Significantly, this paper considers work degradation as a reflexive phenomenon in the context studied, where knowledge‐sharing systems produced deskilling and resistance as part of a specific re‐regulation process.     

Managing knowledge leakage in strategic alliances: The effects of trust and formal contracts

Although strategic alliances offer opportunities for knowledge sharing and leveraging, they also carry the risk of knowledge leakage to partner firms. In this study, we conceptualize the notion of knowledge leakage as a multidimensional construct and formalize its measurement. We examine the effects of two dominant governance mechanisms—trust (goodwill trust and competence trust) and formal contracts on knowledge leakage. A survey of 205 partnering firms in China indicates that goodwill trust has a U-shaped relationship with knowledge leakage, whereas competence trust has a negative impact. Moreover, goodwill trust and competence trust interact differently with formal contracts on knowledge leakage. This study offers important theoretical and managerial insights for firms to manage knowledge leakage in strategic alliances.     

Developing theory from strategic management research in China

What are the main approaches to theory development based on strategic management research in China? What are some of the recent efforts in developing theory in this area? What is our recommended approach? To address these questions, this article outlines the three approaches to theory development in China research, articulates the Chinese context within the global economy, and highlights two streams of recent work as examples of following the recommended, integrative approach to theory development.     

Crossing East-West boundaries: Knowledge sharing in intercultural business networks

Strategic business nets are becoming increasingly important in the arena of global competition. This article examines the influence of ethnic culture on knowledge sharing in different types of intercultural business nets. Knowledge sharing is essential for the functioning of business networks as it influences the cooperation and outcomes that firms are able to achieve. Our basic assumption is that the nature of the cultures involved and the type of network both influence the knowledge-sharing barriers. This is investigated on the basis of two conceptual frameworks. The first is a framework identifying different types of strategic nets and the requirements they impose for knowledge sharing. Subsequently, a culture-classification scheme based on the individualism-collectivism and the vertical-horizontal dimensions is derived. The strategic net and cultural types are then combined in an intercultural business-net framework, and the opportunities for and barriers to knowledge sharing are analysed using examples representing Asian-European and Asian-North American joint ventures and networks.     

Bridging the distance: Managing cross-border knowledge holders

This article examines the micro-level operational difficulties for multinational corporations (MNCs) to generate value from its highly geographically dispersed cross-border knowledge and studies the strategies for overcoming them. Using China as the research context, we identify key geographical, institutional and cultural features of cross-border knowledge holders and examine the dimensions of distance that separates them. We then link these dimensions to the conditions that facilitate cross-border knowledge building processes. In doing so, we propose a conceptual model for overcoming these context-specific knowledge management barriers.     

Learning: The interface of quality management and strategic alliances

In this paper, we investigate the practice of quality management in strategic alliances. By employing a relational view of inter-organizational competitive advantage, the paper addresses the concept of quality management in strategic alliances and networks. We argue that institutional/network relationships influence the practice of quality within a network. In that regard, firms that have adopted quality management practices are more effective in managing and coordinating their interactions with other firms in the network, which results in their enhanced learning capability within the alliance.The proposed framework recognizes the role of trust and cooperative learning as critical factors that affect the success of strategic alliances. It has been argued that firms within an alliance need to achieve the paradox of control and learning. We examine the role of trust as a control mechanism in strategic alliances and address the importance of cooperative learning within alliances. Several hypotheses have been proposed and future research has been outlined.     

Strategic supply chain management: Improving performance through a culture of competitiveness and knowledge development

For many firms, using their supply chains as competitive weapons has become a central element of the strategic management process in recent years. Drawing on the resource‐based view and theory from the organizational learning and information‐processing literatures, this study uses a sample of 201 firms to examine the influence of a culture of competitiveness and knowledge development on supply chain performance in varied market turbulence conditions. We found that synergies exist between a culture of competitiveness and knowledge development: their interaction has a positive association with performance. In addition, based on behavioral and contingency theories, we found that market turbulence moderates these relationships, having a positive influence on the knowledge development–performance link and a negative influence on the culture of competitiveness–performance link. Managers who are confident about the level of market turbulence they will face can use this sense to decide whether to emphasize developing either a culture of competitiveness or knowledge development in their supply chains. For those firms whose managers are unlikely to be able to predict the degree of turbulence they will face over time, a focus on both a culture of competitiveness and knowledge development is critical to ensuring success. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Governing interfirm knowledge transfer in the Chinese market: The interplay of formal and informal mechanisms

Building on knowledge management literature and relational exchange theory, this study addresses how formal (i.e., ex ante contracts and ex post control) and informal mechanisms (i.e., trust) affect interfirm knowledge transfer in the Chinese emerging market. The results of a survey of 343 manufacturer–supplier relationships show that whereas formal control fosters knowledge transfer, contracts are not significantly related to knowledge transfer, and trust greatly facilitates knowledge flows between exchange relationships. Moreover, trust and contracts have a positive joint effect, whereas trust and control have a negative joint effect, on interfirm knowledge transfer. The findings provide important theoretical and managerial implications for interfirm knowledge governance in China.     

Applying knowledge management to project marketing in a demanding technology transfer project: Convincing the industrial customer over the knowledge gap

Literature in project and knowledge management has examined knowledge management in projects, but the utilization of knowledge management in project marketing is still largely unexplored. This study examines the links between knowledge management and project marketing activities in a project where the seller wants to convince the potential buyer about a demanding investment project. An in-depth case study illustrates this in a situation hampered by a technical knowledge gap between the parties. The buyer is committed when they can trust the seller's capability to successfully accomplish the project. The seller must criticize and communicate its core and project specific knowledge of technologies and customer needs through project marketing. A framework and implications on knowledge management and project marketing activities in different project phases is presented. It is proposed that knowledge management is a pertinent tool for project marketing as it helps to understand the roles of different knowledge types.     

Organizational knowledge networks and local search: The role of intra‐organizational inventor networks

Research summary : While firms tend to build on their own knowledge, we distinguish between depth and breadth of local search to investigate the drivers of these behaviors. Given that inventors in a firm carry out the knowledge creation activities, we strive to identify inventors responsible for these behaviors by employing the notion of an intra‐firm inventor network. A longitudinal examination of 14,575 inventors from four large semiconductor firms using patent data supports our hypotheses that the reach of inventors in the intra‐firm network and their span of structural holes have independent and interactive effects on these two types of local search behaviors. These findings have implications for research on exploitation and exploration, organizational knowledge, knowledge networks, and micro‐foundations. Managerial summary : Large amounts of knowledge may reside within firm boundaries, and managers are interested in understanding who may leverage this knowledge to generate novel ideas. We focus on collaborations among knowledge workers to address this question. Using the collaborations among all knowledge workers in a firm, we show that those who have higher reach to all others and those who form bridges to connect unconnected groups of workers tend to leverage not only more organizational knowledge, but also knowledge that is more dispersed in the organization. Managers could use these insights to shape the use of organizational knowledge by firm inventors, and also to make decisions about granting or withholding access to internal knowledge platforms for knowledge workers. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Building knowledge to improve enterprise performance from inventory simulation models

This paper describes the process of building knowledge to improve enterprise performance. This allows managers both to identify unknown risks and to develop solutions that mitigate these risks. One of the most critical risks that the enterprise faces involves the unidentified presence of serial-correlation components on the demand patterns. Depending upon the levels of such correlation, inventory control policies can be appreciably inaccurate. We propose to use a knowledge management portfolio that allows managers to capture and build knowledge from their complex systems. We find that the error generated from ignoring identified risk factors exponentially grows as the autocorrelation increases. We construct an enhanced simulated annealing algorithm that provides superior solutions to this type of problem.     

柏克德（Bechtel）——安全管理与知识管理造就全美行业翘楚

介绍了全球著名的美国第一大建筑承包商——柏克德（Bechtel）公司的总体情况,分析了该公司的国际和国内市场的经营业绩、业务范围、主营业务。重点从安全管理、知识管理两大核心竞争力剖析了柏克德公司实现可持续发展的源动力。通过比较研究,总结了柏克德公司对我国建筑企业的借鉴意义,并为我国建筑企业学习柏克德公司的先进经验提出了具体举措。     

The impact of U.S. company internationalization on top management team advice networks: a tacit knowledge perspective

This study surveys 37 U.S. multinational corporations (MNCs) to examine the effect of internationalization on one dimension of the top management team’s (TMT’s) character: international business advice network density. This study draws on international business (IB) theory, the resource‐based view of the firm, and philosophy of science and its view of tacit knowledge. Results show that both the firm’s internationalization extent, and the interdependence that exists across its country–market activities, are positively related to the TMT’s IB advice network density. As the extent of the MNC’s business outside the United States grows and the linkages among its IB units intensify, the demand for IB expertise within the TMT increases, TMT members share each other’s knowledge of IB more extensively and the TMT’s IB advice network density increases. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cluster and performance in foreign firms: The role of resources, knowledge, and trust

Clustering, the grouping of firms in close geographic proximity to one another, can enhance the performance of affiliated firms by providing access to complementary resources. Despite that some studies have produced empirical evidence supporting the positive impact of clustering, other studies have found no such evidence. Consequently, the consideration of clustering alone to explain differences in firm performance may be insufficient. This study seeks to determine whether the enhancement of firm performance comes as a consequence of clustering at the location level, interorganizational trust at the relationship level, or resource and knowledge management (i.e., the mechanisms of system dependence) at the firm level. Examining a sample group of Taiwanese manufacturers investing in China, we find that interorganizational trust, resources, and the mechanisms of system dependence all have a positive impact on performance. Further, we find that resources interact with clustering to positively impact firm performance.     

Diffusing knowledge-based core competencies for leveraging innovation strategies: Modelling outsourcing to knowledge process organizations (KPOs) in pharmaceutical networks

As pharmaceutical firms try to market their products and reduce costs, vertically integrated structures hamper innovation processes. Yet, pharmaceutical firms must innovate to compete. Outsourcing knowledge intensive activities to knowledge process organizations (KPOs) serves to reduce innovation process obstacles. Grounded in diffusion theory and strategic management literature, this conceptual paper explores four interrelated strategic concepts: core competencies, economies of scale and scope, knowledge sharing, and learning. This paper claims that (a) accumulated core competencies of multinational pharmaceutical companies (MPCs) erode over time and these companies become dependent on KPOs (b) MPCs must understand how KPOs manage core competencies (c) economies of scope benefit KPOs enabling them to sustain competitive advantages for their MPC partners, meanwhile the benefits from economies of both scale and scope shift from MPCs to KPOs (d) KPOs need to monitor their rate of learning to remain competitive. The paper identifies implications for industrial managers and directions for future research.     

What contributes to the enhanced use of customer, competition and technology knowledge for product innovation performance? : A survey of multinational industrial companies' subsidiaries operating in China

This study extends an emerging research area in knowledge management to new product development by empirically examining the factors associated with the use of different types of knowledge flows from various sources and product innovation performance (i.e., market success of new products) in the multinational companies' subsidiaries in China. The findings seem to indicate the vitality of considering a broad spectrum of knowledge management related variables such as a subsidiary's product development strategy, market conditions it faces, its knowledge capacity and knowledge support structure. Furthermore, we found that subsidiaries with better performance are generally excel in the use of competition knowledge flow, the development of moderate innovative products, communication among different functional departments or product development groups, the codification of knowledge, and a supportive culture.