The importance of ‘natural’ barriers to trade among developing countries: Some evidence from the transport cost content in Brazilian imports

The paper applies a cif/fob import value comparison of Brazilian imports in order to check the argument of freight rate advantages for North-South shipping against South-South shipping in competing products and to estimate the relation between freight rates and tariff rates in total nominal protection of Brazil against imports from developing countries.The findings suggest that a freight rate advantage for North-South shipping exists in manufactured products, being significant for three of eight analysed regional trade flows. The second result is that tariff rates hamper Brazillian imports from developing countries much more than do freight rates.     

Prospects of trade liberalization between the developed and the developing countries

This paper analyzes the theoretical and policy aspects of various possible approaches — multilateral, preferential and others — toward new initiatives for liberalizing trade relations between the developed and the developing countries. The increasing differentiation between the Newly Industrializing Countries (NICs) and the Less Developed Countries (LDCs) suggests that a multidimensional framework, allowing flexibility in dealing with different subsets within the developing countries would be more relevant. The paper analyzes the probable outcomes and constraints of the various trade-liberalizing options with regard to their effects on trade flows, welfare and terms of trade.     

The political economy of trade liberalization in developing countries

The paper addresses the issue of trade liberalization in developing countries from a political economy perspective using the theory of collective action. The role of collective action and interest group behavior is analysed critically both with respect to the initiation of attemps at liberalization and its outcome in terms of success or failure. A probit model is then used to test empirically the various hypotheses as to the determinants of likelihood of success of liberalization attempts. A sample of 51 liberalization episodes relating to 24 countries and spanning the period 1950–80 is used. Five factors are found to be critical in the process of liberalization: the strength of exporters groups as represented by the diversification and importance of manufactures and traditional exports, the strength of import-competing sector's opposition as measured by the share of manufacturing in GDP, the time elapsed since the beginning of import substitution, the size of country and the leadership committment and role.     

Two-way trade between unequal partners: The EU and the developing countries

Two-Way Trade between Unequal Partners: The EU and the Developing Countries. — This paper analyses the intra-industry trade specialization between the EU and the developing countries between 1980 and 1992. It shows that EU intra-industry trade with the developing countries has greatly increased and that the traditional measure of intra-industry trade, the Grubel-Lloyd index, is inappropriate when applied to trade between developed and developing countries. By and large, the empirical analysis confirms that intra-industry trade between the developed and the developing countries increases with average and per capita income, and with reduced differences in economic size and capital-labour ratios.     

Free trade and income redistribution in some developing and newly industrialized countries

A competitive general equilibrium model of production is specified and the long-run comparative static elasticities of changing prices on factor prices are examined in eight developing and newly industrialized countries. Unskilled labor in these developing countries stands to gain from a program of global free trade characterized by increased manufacturing exports and falling prices of imported business services, while capital owners and skilled labor lose. Results are contrasted with developed countries, the United States in particular, where unskilled labor will lose while capital and skilled labor enjoy gains with global free trade.     

Exports of manufactures by developing countries: emerging patterns of trade and location

Developing countries are rapidly increasing their shares ofmanufactured trade, not just in labour-intensive products, butalso in capital- and skill-intensive ones; their shares arerising particularly rapidly in the high-technology area. However,manufactured exports remain highly concentrated in the developingworld, with a few countries dominating all forms of export.Within the successful exporting countries, there are significantdifferences in the 'technology content' of exports. These trendsare difficult to explain with received trade theory, even takinghuman capital into account, or with reference to broad economicpolicies: it is useful to bring in 'learning', along with scaleeconomies, increasing returns, and agglomeration as determinantsof comparative advantage. These factors imply market failures,and so a role for policy in developing genuine comparative advantages.This article suggests that emerging trade and location patternsin the developing work are explained by market imperfectionsand government policies to overcome them.     

产权、交易费用、效率

最近看了很多关于产权和交易费用方面的书，本来是带着弄清楚的目的去看的，结果发现越来越迷糊了，也不知道大家有没有这样的感觉。想弄清楚产权和交易费用究竟指的是什么，但是发现不同的人有不同的看法，也就是说，现在有这么多的人在讨论产权和交易费用，说什么产权必须要明晰之类的话，但是对于产权究竟指的是什么，我认为他们未必弄清楚了，只是人云亦云而巳。在这里，我想就几个问题来谈谈我的看法。     

Forecasting the cost benefit of developing new modes of rapid passenger transport

The authors suggest a methodological approach for forecasting the capacity of new market niches for long-distance passenger traffic and for rapid transport vehicles. The complex analysis of the prerequisites for the development and the effect of the enhanced availability of long-distance transportation and the associated problems are discussed.     

The product pattern of intra-industry trade: Stability among countries and over time

Zusammenfassung Die Güterstruktur des intraindustriellen Handels: Stabilit?t zwischen den L?ndern und im Zeitablauf. - Gem?\ der vierstelligen ISIC schwankt der Anteil des intraindustriellen Handels am gesamten Au\enhandel mit Industriegütern für eine Gruppe von elf Industriel?ndern zwischen 35 und 80 Prozent. Der intraindustrielle Handel spielt zwischen den Industriel?ndern und hier insbesondere in Europa eine bedeutend gr?\ere Rolle als im Verh?ltnis zwischen Industrie- und Entwicklungsl?ndern. Sein Anteil scheint im Handel zwischen zwei L?ndern um so gr?\er zu sein, je geringer der Unterschied im Durchschnittseinkommen und je kleiner die geographische Distanz zwischen den Handelspartnern ist. Au\erdem findet der intraindustrielle Handel zwischen Industrie- und Entwicklungsl?ndern nicht in denselben Produktgruppen statt wie in denjenigen zwischen entwickelten L?ndern. Es besteht allerdings eine Tendenz, da\ sich die Güterstruktur im Handel der Industrie- und Entwicklungsl?nder im Laufe der Zeit angleicht. Im Gegensatz zu theoretisch fundierten Erwartungen ist der intraindustrielle Handel nicht auf Konsumgüter beschr?nkt, sondern auch für Investitionsgüter und Halbfabrikate wichtig.

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Résumé Le commerce intra-industriel par produit: La stabilité de la structure parmi des pays et sur temps. - Mesuré sur le niveau 4 chiffres d’ISIC, la portion du commerce intra-industriel en commerce extérieur total dans le secteur manufacturier varie entre 35 et 80 pour cent pour un échantillon de onze pays industriels. Le commerce intra-industriel est beaucoup plus important parmi les pays développés, particulièrement en Europe, qu’entre les pays développés et développants. La portion du commerce intra-industriel en commerce total de deux pays tend à monter si la différence en revenu moyen et la distance géographique entre les deux partenaires commerciaux tend à baisser. De plus, deux-voies commerce entre les pays développés et développants ne se passe dans les mêmes groupes de biens que celui entre les pays developpés. En contraste de ce qu’on peut attendre de l’analyse théorique le commerce intra-industriel n’est pas limité aux biens de consommation, mais il est aussi important pour les biens d’investissement et les biens demi-fabriqués.

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Resumen El perfil del comercio intrasectorial a nivel de productos: estabilidad entre países y en el tiempo. - La participatión del comercio intrasectorial, medida al nivel de 4 dígitos de la CIIU, en el total del comercio internacional de manufacturas varía entre un 35 y un 80 por ciento en una muestra de 11 países industriales. El comercio intrasectorial tiene mayor importancia para el comercio entre países desarrollados, particularmente entre los de Europa, que para el comercio entre países desarrollados y países en desarrollo. La participación del comercio intrasectorial en el total del comercio entre dos países tiende a ser más alta, cuanto menor sea la diferencia entre el ingreso medio y la distancia geográfica entre los dos. Además, el comercio entre países desarrollados y en desarrollo no abarca las mismas ramas que el comercio intrasectorial entre países desarrollados. Contrariamente a lo comúnmente esperado, el comercio intrasectorial se da no sólo en bienes de consumo sino también en bienes de capital y en productos semielaborados.

     

The main lines of cooperation among developing countries in pharmaceuticals

The recent period has seen major initiatives for new pharmaceutical policies in the developing countries. Two Conferences of the Heads of State of Non-Aligned and other developing countries have adopted special resolutions on the subject, giving broad directives for national policies and for cooperative action among the developing countries themselves. The possible areas of activity for initiating regional or subregional cooperative programmes in the pharmaceutical sector are examined. The current initiatives in cooperative activity undertaken by sub-regional groupings in different parts of the world are described. A possible model for a mixed multinational pharmaceutical enterprise to foster inter-regional cooperation is also described.     

The impact of declining terms of trade and inflation on the export proceeds and debt burden of developing countries

This paper considers two problems related to the calculation of losses arising from changes in the terms of trade. First, the author discusses the choice of an appropriate formula for calculating the national gains or losses with respect to the trade balance as a result of changes in the terms of trade. Second, he studies the problem of determining whether the analysis can be extended to elucidate the gains or losses arising with respect to the service of the debt. These two questions are approached in the light of two earlier UNCTAD studies.     

International shipping and the developing countries

The existence of a strong cartel in shipping, operated by developed countries in their own interest, has long been a subject of resentment and criticism by the less developed countries. This paper describes the structure of international shipping, the way in which ‘Liners Conferences’ operate, the efforts of UNCTAD to get a better deal for the Third World, and the options open to developing countries to improve their relative economic position in this vital industry.     

How preferences shape the welfare and employment effects of trade

Review of World Economics - We set up a trade model with two countries, two sectors, and one production factor, which features a home-market effect due to the existence of trade costs. We consider...     

Saving,investment, fiscal deficits,and the external indebtedness of developing countries

This paper investigates selected aspects of the external indebtedness of the developing countries. It examines both the theoretical and empirical sides of the debt servicing capacity issue, focussing on the role of domestic savings and investment as well as the budget deficits of the public sector in the recent widening of their current account deficits. The results of the study do not support the proposition that increases in external indebtedness among developing countries reflect overconsumption. Capital inflows did not partly or wholly displace domestic saving for the sample of countries examined; rather, the increase in external deficits can in most cases be accounted for by expansion in investment (relative to total output). However, the author qualifies his basically optimistic conclusions in pointing out that countries' ability to repay debt depends not only on whether initial borrowing sustained consumption or investment. but also, if the latter, on the quality of the investment spending.