Operating characteristics of rural non-farm enterprises in Central Province,Kenya

The ILO has identified seven characteristics which describe the operation of informal sector enterprises. These operating characteristics are assessed using survey data on rural non-farm enterprises located in market centers in Central Province, Kenya. Two characteristics (family ownership and small scale of operation) appear to be entirely true, but the remaining five are in need of qualification. Not all activities use labour-intensive technologies, indeed some require fairly large capital inputs. Indigenous resources are not important in many rural non-farm activities. Some important business skills are acquired inside the formal school system. There are not insignificant barriers to entering the more profitable non-farm enterprises. And these barriers, in conjunction with other factors, limit competition in some activities in many of the market centres. It appears that the operators of the more profitable and technically more advanced enterprises are forming a rural petty bourgeoisie. Thus contrary to the ILO interpretation, growth of the rural non-farm sector may be associated with greater income inequalities.     

市场潜能、人口密度与非农劳动生产率——来自中国地级面板数据的证据

本文基于样本期为1999—2004年的地级面板数据并运用动态面板数据的计量方法，对中国地级区域市场潜能、人口密度等经济地理因素与其非农业劳动生产率之间的关系进行了实证研究。结果表明，地级区域的市场潜能、人口密度等经济地理因素对其非农劳动生产率都存在显著为正的影响。而且，无论是从绝对弹性还是标准化弹性来看，地级区域市场潜能对其非农劳动生产率的影响都更大。     

Farm households' participation in rural non-farm employment in post-war Rwanda: Drivers and policy implications

Despite the post-war government's unprecedented efforts to stimulate growth of the rural non-farm (RNF) sector in Rwanda, evidence suggests that participation in this sector remains low compared with other developing and transition economies. This study investigates the micro and meso-level factors defining farm household's capacity and incentives to participate in RNF employment in the post-war Rwanda. Based on the household's time allocation theory, this study employs household survey data collected in Gisagara District in a double-hurdle regression. The results reveal that female-headedness, labour availability, education, social networks, access to finance and rural towns increase the probability of participating in RNF activities, whereas for participating households, the time allocated to RNF activities tends to decrease with age, land productivity, distance to market and dispersed settlements. The article concludes with key implications for rural development policies such as basic education and umudugudu settlements.     

东道国交通运输能力与中国企业跨国并购:基于生产率调节效应的视角

文章将东道国交通运输能力和生产率引入理论模型,并基于宏观和微观层面数据,研究东道国交通基础设施对中国企业跨国并购完成率的影响机制,实证结果表明:高交通运输能力国家的企业为中国企业并购所青睐,尤其是水路运输;劳动生产率较高的国家的企业对中国资本吸引力并不显著,但东道国交通运输能力与劳动生产率的双向互动却明显促进了中国企业跨国并购,而且不同行业劳动生产率的调节效应不尽相同,服务业劳动生产率引起的间接调节效应最大,其次是工业,最后是农业。这对于有效促进中国企业成功"出海"并实现全球资本区域结构优化具有现实价值。     

Institutional dynamics and access to non-farm employment in rural China, 1950–1996

This article examines non-farm employment in the context of Chinese rural institutional change, based on evidence from discrete-time logistic models for event history analysis using the Life History and Social Change survey. We find the transition to non-farm sector rose rapidly during the Great Leap Forward and market reform, while the Cultural Revolution saw it reach the lowest ebb. While male advantage prevailed exclusively during the Cultural Revolution and early marketization, education possessed a stable positive effect in all historical periods. Although the returns to different kinds of political capital vary along with institutional dynamics, intergenerational reproduction was greatly reduced after the Cultural Revolution.     

Agricultural growth multipliers for two communal areas of KwaZulu-Natal

Expenditure data were collected from 99 households in two rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal. District and wealth group expenditure analyses suggest a less-than-proportional increase in the demand for tradable farm commodities, and a more-than-proportional increase in the demand for non-tradable farm commodities following a 1 per cent increase in household expenditure. Expenditure on non-farm tradables (imported consumer durables) showed the greatest potential for demand growth, with expenditure elasticities ranging from 1,75 to 2,59. An increase of R1,00 in household income is predicted to add an additional 28 cents (multiplier of 1,28) to the local economy. The study estimates relatively weak growth linkages. However, even relatively weak growth linkages could lead to much needed new income and employment opportunities in the local farm and non-farm sectors if the constraints limiting agriculture, and hence broad-based growth in rural incomes, are alleviated. Agriculture-led growth in South Africa requires public investment in both physical and institutional infrastructure to reduce transaction costs and risks in all markets, thus encouraging greater participation by local entrepreneurs and private sector investors. In addition, the roles, functions and services offered by extension agents should be extended to promote collective marketing, facilitate land rental contracts and provide training, technical and business support for farm and non-farm entrepreneurs.     

劳动成本、劳动生产率与中国制造业企业的竞争力

劳动成本上升一方面弱化了中国制造业企业的比较优势,另一方面也影响着企业竞争力的提高。我国制造业发展正处于一个关键时期,当务之急是改革现行的工资机制,从关注劳动力资源丰富、劳动力成本低的角度转向人力资本积累,转向自主创新,大幅度提高劳动生产率,为我国制造业的发展提供持续的竞争动力。     

The Financial Performance of Non-farm Microenterprises in Ghana

This paper analyzes the effect of firm and other characteristics on the incidence and intensity of improved financial performance among non-farm microenterprises in Ghana, using data from the 1998/1999 Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS 4). The results indicate that firm characteristics, including urban and regional location, significantly affect the incidence and intensity of improved performance, but entrepreneurial characteristics are unimportant. The firm’s capital stock does not affect the propensity and intensity of better performance, reflecting that the value of assets owned is low and insufficient to have a measurable impact on enterprise productivity and performance.     

对中美贸易条件恶化的经验研究

金融危机爆发对我国外贸企业的沉重打击,再次表明我国出口商品结构不合理以及对外贸易高依存度的弊端。本文从贸易条件模型入手,通过分析1980～2003年间中国与美国的相关变量发现,由于我国贸易结构长期以出口劳动密集型产品为主,使得我国不断增长的制造业生产率和较低的购买力水平成为我国贸易条件趋于恶化的重要影响因素。因此,提高居民的收入水平,增强中国制造业生产多样化的能力,是长期内改善我国对外贸易条件的途径。     

The Balassa-Samuelson model with job separations

We incorporate sectoral job separation rates in a small open economy model to examine the Balassa-Samuelson (B-S) effect. Unequal separation rates give rise to compensating wage differentials. We simulate the model for Japan and replicate a feature of its economy that the nontradeables sector has higher wages and a higher separation rate compared to the tradeables sector. With productivity growth in the tradeables sector, labour moves from the tradeables sector to the nontradeables sector if tradeables and nontradeables are complements in consumption. The B-S effect is dampened. With a higher separation rate in the nontradeables sector, higher wages in the nontradeables sector amplifies this labour movement. Nevertheless, unemployment always falls due to a positive income effect. In contrast, the effect of productivity growth in the nontradeables sector is to lower the real exchange rate and raise unemployment.     

异质性企业、出口与“生产率悖论”——基于2007年中国制造业企业层面的证据

在异质性企业贸易理论提出以后,生产率就被看作是决定企业出口的重要因素,只有生产率高的企业才有能力选择出口.不过对中国企业的经验研究发现,中国出口企业的生产率的均值要低于非出口企业,即存在“生产率悖论”.本文使用2007年中国制造业企业样本,运用两种方法,其一是计算比较生产率法,其二是运用统计方法检验出口企业与非出口企业的生产率差异.为了结论的准确性,我们分行业、分地区、分企业注册类型、分企业规模检验.最后检验出口企业的生产率与其出口规模的相关性.结论认为:出口企业生产率均值在大部分情况下低于非出口企业;出口企业的生产率在很多时候显著低于非出口企业或者与非出口企业无差异;出口企业的生产率与出口规模正相关,但是在控制其它可能影响出口的因素后,则变为负相关.这些都是中国出口企业存在“生产率悖论”的证据.     

Output and productivity comparisons of the Singapore and Hong Kong wholesale and retail trade sectors, 2001–2008

This paper employs the industry of origin approach to compare value‐added and labour productivity of Singapore and Hong Kong's wholesale and retail sectors for the period 2001–08. The direct comparison between these two economies was motivated by the statement of the Singapore Government that its services sector, especially the retail sector, lagged behind Hong Kong's productivity levels. The results show that since 2005, Singapore's wholesale and retail sector performance in terms of labour productivity has been below Hong Kong's level, largely due to the poor performance of its retail sector arising from an influx of foreign workers. Results from total factor productivity analysis of these two economies also suggest that Hong Kong's better performance (since 2005) was largely due to its ability to employ more educated and trained workers with limited use of capital. The results suggest that polices that have worked in Hong Kong may not work in Singapore because its population is more diverse, which poses a challenge to policymakers in raising its productivity level.     

Migration,Education and Rural Development: Evidence from China 2000 Population Census Data

There has been a concern that the growth of towns has been stalled recently and with it, the creation of non-farm jobs in rural industries. This study uses 2000 census tabulations to look at this issue by examining in-migration in towns in three provinces in China, Zhejiang, Henan, and Sichuan. In addition to the diversified patterns of town in-migrants revealed in these provinces, this paper finds that town in-migrants generally possess higher levels of educational attainment than those of the local population in towns, especially in the less-developed western and central provinces of Sichuan and Henan. There is also evidence that as towns themselves grow wealthier, such as in Zhejiang, better educated people in rural areas were likely to shift their jobs from the farm to non-farm sector in towns nearby, instead of leaving the countryside to migrate to other provinces. Labor markets in towns in less-developed western and central provinces were more flexible in accommodating in-migrants, whereas in the coastal province of Zhejiang, labor markets tend to become segregated between migrants and the local population.     

The Market Shares of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in Taiwan Manufacturing

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have played an important role in many countries’ industrial development. Among these countries, Taiwan is well known for the outstanding performance of its SMEs. Limited knowledge about the causes of such performance has been revealed gradually. The main purpose of this study is to explore the determinants of SMEs’ market shares in Taiwan’s manufacturing sector. According to economics literature, economies of scale determine the market share of SMEs. The usual explanation given is that economies of scale create barriers against SMEs entering the market and competing efficiently with larger firms. It is also said that the strong entrepreneurial drive to have a self-owned business is a crucial explanation for the creation of new businesses, usually as offshoots from a small one. Finally, such factors such as an even-handed policy scheme, the availability of technology in relation to R&D, transaction costs, and so forth, are also important for creating a favourable environment for SMEs. Applying cross-industry pooling data from 1976 to 1986, the market shares of SMEs in Taiwan’s manufacturing sector were found to be affected by the following factors: (1) SMEs’ performance related to labour productivity and their willingness to set up new enterprises; (2) institutional factors including low entry barriers, suitable technology, the adoption of a subcontract system, and prosperous export markets. The empirical findings are compared with those from studies of the US and Germany.     

The Market Shares of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in Taiwan Manufacturing*

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SEM s) have played an important role in many countries’industrial development. Among these countries, Taiwan is well known for the outstanding performance of its SME s. Limited knowledge about the causes of such performance has been revealed gradually. The main purpose of this study is to explore the determinants of SME s’market shares in Taiwan's manufacturing sector. According to economics literature, economies of scale determine the market share of SME s. The usual explanation given is that economies of scale create barriers against SME s entering the market and competing efficiently with larger firms. It is also said that the strong entrepreneurial drive to have a self-owned business is a crucial explanation for the creation of new businesses, usually as offshoots from a small one. Finally, such factors such as an even-handed policy scheme, the availability of technology in relation to R&D, transaction costs, and so forth, are also important for creating a favourable environment for SME s. Applying cross-industry pooling data from 1976 to 1986, the market shares of SME s in Taiwan's manufacturing sector were found to be affected by the following factors: (1) SME s’performance related to labour productivity and their willingness to set up new enterprises; (2) institutional factors including low entry barriers, suitable technology, the adoption of a subcontract system, and prosperous export markets. The empirical findings are compared with those from studies of the US and Germany.     

生产率影响差异及企业出口竞争力——基于不同所有制企业的实证分析

运用中国工业企业的微观数据,本文研究了不同所有制企业生产率对企业出口竞争力的影响。研究发现,所有制是影响企业出口竞争力的重要因素,国有企业的出口竞争力明显小于私营企业、外资企业和港澳台企业。进一步研究表明,生产率对不同所有制企业出口竞争力的影响存在显著差异。生产率对国有企业获得出口竞争力有负向影响,但私营企业、外资企业和港澳台企业的生产率水平越高,其进入出口市场的竞争力越强。     

Small Enterprise Growth and the Rural Investment Climate: Evidence from Tanzania*

Abstract: This paper analyzes characteristics of nonfarm enterprises, their employment growth patterns, and constraints in doing business in rural Tanzania. Using unique survey data, we describe a low‐return sector struggling to compete in a challenging business environment. However, about one‐third of rural enterprises are growing fast. Most enterprises engage in agricultural trade. Due to a rapidly growing agricultural sector in recent years, limiting demand‐side constraints, rural enterprise constraints in Tanzania mainly operate from the supply‐side, suggesting that in particular access to finance, road infrastructure and rural cell phone communication is associated with employment growth. A major finding is that subjective and objective measurements of business constraints are broadly comparable. We discuss a number of factors that would help to unleash the full potential of private sector‐led growth in rural areas. Marginal improvements of the rural investment climate matter for growth.     

Convergence in rural development: evidence from India

We analyze state-level data of rural India for the period 1973–1993. The gain in agricultural productivity as measured by a Tornqvist–Theil TFP index shows wide divergence across states over time. While there has been an overall decline in farm–non-farm employment ratio over the entire period, it has shown an increasing trend in some states from the second half of the 1980s. We explore the issue of convergence in rural development that takes into account both the increase in agricultural productivity and non-farm employment in rural areas. We find that there is a strong tendency to converge over time to the level of Kerala, the leading state in the initial period. The speed of convergence is in the range of other studies for convergence in agriculture only.     

Productivity or Endowments? Sectoral Evidence for Hong Kong's Aggregate Growth*

The present paper provides sectoral evidence that sheds new light on the current debate regarding the sources of growth of the East Asian miracle. We test both the productivity‐driven and endowment‐driven hypotheses using Hong Kong's sectoral data. The results show that most of the growth of the service sector is driven by rapidly‐accumulating capital endowments, and not by productivity growth. In addition, productivity growth in the manufacturing sector is unimpressive. The manufacturing sector is revealed to be more labor intensive than the service sector and its growth is hindered by the reallocation of resources into the service sector as a result of the growth of capital endowments and imports. Overall, sectoral evidence supports the endowment‐driven hypothesis.     

碳排放权交易、企业绿色创新与全要素生产率

基于2011—2019年碳排放权交易试点企业的面板数据,运用双重差分模型与中介效应模型实证检验碳排放权交易对企业全要素生产率的影响,并剖析绿色创新在其中发挥的作用。结果表明,碳排放权交易显著促进了企业全要素生产率的提升,且绿色创新在碳交易与全要素生产率提升方面发挥了中介作用。因此应加快全国统一碳排放权交易市场建设,激励企业加大绿色技术研发投入,以绿色创新驱动高质量发展。