Why small farms persist? The influence of farmers’ characteristics on farm growth and development. The case of smaller dairy farmers in NZ

Human capital is an important resource in primary production impacting on farmers’ decisions and actions. Given their current and expected economic environment, farmers must use their human capital in mapping out a trajectory for their farm. This study considers particular aspects of farmers’ human capital and its influence on farm growth, or lack of it. Farmers’ characteristics as expressed through their personality, intelligence and objectives are the main human capital aspects considered in a sample of smaller NZ dairy farms. They are somewhat typical of western farmers working on smaller farms. They can be broadly classed into Expanders, Maintainers and Retractors. It is hypothesised each group will have distinct and different personal characteristics and these influence the farmers’ choice of trajectory. This is in addition to purely economic factors. It is also hypothesised the characteristics influence the farmers’ choice of development strategy and how challenges to the strategy are viewed. The data collected from the small dairy farms support the hypotheses suggesting the design of policy and extension programs must allow for these human capital drivers. Using past data, it is also shown aspects of human capital are different in large farms emphasising the same conclusion.     

农民的创业动机、需求及其扶持

本文基于对广东省部分地区农民的问卷调查分析,受农民群体的独特性及其所处环境的特殊作用,农民的创业动机主要源于生存需求、自我实现和发展及解决就业;对政府行政成本与法制保障的忧虑、市场拓展与管理能力不足、风险承受能力差及创业能力不足是农民创业的主要障碍;而资金帮助和技术支持是农民创业最期盼得到的帮助,创业者风险补偿是农民创业最希望获得的政府优惠政策,由此,提升农民创业者的创业能力及其创业后的管理和发展能力、创业可持性始终应该是农民创业扶持政策必须给予关注的重点。     

ASPECTS OF FARM PROFITABILITY: AN OUTMODED CONCEPT? PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

The paper begins by recording Journal articles since 1952 of relevance to farming incomes and efficiency, and follows by reviewing the literature on measuring farmers' incomes and the problems entailed, including consideration of non-farming incomes and capital gains and their relevance to agricultural policy. Definitions of ‘profit’ in selected economic texts are then compared, together with attempts to measure ‘pure profit’ from farming. Suitable charges for management and interest are then determined and estimates made of net profits and losses from different types of farming in 1986/7 and 1987/8 for both average and ‘top’ farms. Real farming incomes and capital gains from land from 1938 to 1988 are then discussed. The paper concludes by summarising why the concept of profitability from farming has now largely lost its significance—though not for all farmers.     

Risks and farmers’ investment in productive assets in Nigeria

The majority of farmers in sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA) lack the means to mitigate the impact of risks associated with rainfall and commodity prices due to capital constraints and the imperfect insurance market in these countries. Because most SSA farmers are risk averse, they may be willing to invest in productive assets that can mitigate the impacts of such risks if their capital constraints are relaxed through external financial assistance. We test this hypothesis by using panel data on investment behavior of Nigerian farmers who received financial assistance on productive assets. The empirical results show that farmers facing higher rainfall risks are more likely to invest in irrigation pumps that can mitigate the impact of rainfall risks, while those facing higher risks of white gari price are more likely to invest in milling machines that enable them to process cassava into flour instead of gari, which supports our hypothesis.     

Governing the transformation towards ‘nature-inclusive’ agriculture: insights from the Netherlands

It is becoming increasingly difficult to combine nature conservation by farmers with intensive and large-scale farming. The Dutch government recently adopted the new policy concept of ‘nature-inclusive’ farming, which aims at promoting more sustainable agricultural practices that minimizes negative ecological impacts, maximizes positive ones and at the same time benefits from natural processes. A transformation towards ‘nature-inclusive’ farming faces three key governance challenges that are elaborated upon in this paper. First, agri-environment schemes and other conservation arrangements need to become more effective. At the same time, nature conservation should be mainstreamed in agricultural policies and in agri-food chains. Second, we need shared meanings about nature-inclusive farming. Third, other forms of knowledge production for nature-inclusive farming are required that focus more on farmers’ knowledge needs.     

Fostering cooperation between farmers and public and private actors to expand environmentally friendly rice cultivation: intermediary functions and farmers’ perspectives

This study investigates the intermediary functions and the farmers’ perspectives in the development and implementation of agri-environmental schemes in Shiga Prefecture of Japan by employing the innovation journey analysis and the statistical analysis. The innovation journey analysis demonstrates that the prefectural government served as an ‘innovation intermediary’ to: (1) provide a clear vision of sustainable agriculture for farmers and other actors, (2) create and reinforce both technological and market niches and (3) develop actor networks involving local actors. It also identifies the following roles of the Japan Agricultural Cooperatives (JAs) and the specialist wholesaler as innovation intermediaries to: (1) develop new farming materials such as fertilizers, (2) translate and deliver practical farming knowledge for farmers and (3) establish the market of environmental-friendly rice. Statistical analysis uncovers that farmers more appreciated the supports from the JAs than those from other intermediaries to participate in the schemes. Complemented by the innovation journey analysis, our findings suggest that the keys to increasing farmers’ participation in the schemes include a clear vision and economic incentives for farmers as well as the coordination among intermediaries who have different expertise.     

Revisiting revenue contingent loans for drought relief: government as risk manager

It is clear that Australian governments will provide assistance to farmers in drought, which is a rational political judgement supported by recent survey work suggesting strongly the pervasive existence among voters of agrarian sentiment. In this context, a reasonable question relates to what forms of assistance are most equitable for taxpayers and also have desirable properties for farm businesses. In this study it is argued that traditional and current approaches to drought assistance are not equitable and do not provide sufficient protection to farmers from default and thus insolvency risk. But there is an instrument available to government which can be designed to minimise taxpayer subsidies while at the same time delivering insurance for farmers against default: a Revenue Contingent Loan (RCL). Following the principles inherent in the Higher Education Contribution Scheme, a RCL is financial assistance repaid contingent on a farm's capacity to pay, meaning that loan defaults can be avoided. We model the revenue streams associated with a hypothetical loan of this type and illustrate the advantages for a farm business of these kinds of debt.     

OPTIONS FOR REDUCING INPUTS TO AGRICULTURE: A NON-ECONOMIST'S VIEW

By adopting new (higher output) technology farmers have largely compensated for the steady fall in ‘real’ EEC farm prices: as a result food production is in surplus. Because immediate price cuts adequate to curb production are unlikely, further restriction on farm output (e.g., milk quotas) appears unavoidable. Farmers must then aim to reduce their input costs so as to produce their ‘quota’ as cheaply as possible. The paper examines options for reducing inputs, and concludes that more research on lower-input production systems is urgently needed, and that the economic discipline must be closely integrated with this research. It notes that a shift towards ‘less intensive’ farming would be in line with public concern on the environment, food quality and animal welfare.     

茶农生计资本、风险感知及其生计策略关系分析

以DFID模型为理论基础,引入茶农风险感知,构建茶农可持续生计分析框架,运用福建4个茶叶主产区228份茶农数据进行实证分析。结果表明:生计资本是影响茶农生计策略选择的核心要素,其中自然资本对其生计策略选择的影响最大,其次是物质资本和金融资本;而茶农风险感知对其生计策略选择有重要影响,其中自然风险和市场价格波动风险对其影响最大。生计资本、风险感知以及生计策略等对茶农生计结果具有一定影响。     

Using scenario-based influence mapping to examine farmers’ biosecurity behaviour

Understanding of farmers’ influences relating to biosecurity is surprisingly weak, beyond general remarks that farmers tend to trust their private vet. Previous studies have explored influences in relation to single issue events. There is a need for better methodologies to fully appreciate how farmers’ biosecurity practices are shaped. Using bovine Tuberculosis as a case study, this paper uses stakeholder mapping methods applied across different scenarios. The aim is to identify how farmers’ responses to animal disease policy are shaped by their relationships with different actors. Interviews were conducted with 50 farmers in three areas in England. Farmers were presented with four scenarios to control bovine Tuberculosis: 1) a badger cull, 2) an oral badger vaccine, 3) a cattle vaccine and 4) a range of control measures. The results show that as things get more uncertain, government institutions become more influential. Government institutions and government vets are also important in situations where farmers do not consider themselves ‘experts’ i.e. vaccination as opposed to culling. The influence of other farmers was not universal; it differed between scenarios. These data show the value of scenario-based stakeholder mapping as a methodology that can enable biosecurity researchers to: more accurately and systematically determine stakeholder influence and understand how these influences change and evolve; understand the role of farmer biosecurity practices, the self-concept and ‘good farming’; and identify broader logics of biosecurity that influence and potentially frustrate animal disease policy goals.     

贫困山区不同生计策略类型脱贫农户生计风险识别与评估

[目的]尽管2020年后我国已经全面脱贫,但脱贫农户仍然面临自然、市场、政策等多重生计风险冲击,非常容易再次掉入贫困陷阱。识别与评估贫困山区不同生计策略类型脱贫农户生计风险,为政府更好地制定相关政策,巩固脱贫成果提供实证依据,具有必要性和现实意义。[方法]文章以武陵山连片特困地区的768户脱贫农户调查问卷为样本数据,运用ESI为综合评价指数,识别与评估不同生计策略类型脱贫农户的生计风险。[结果]（1）样本区农业兼业型脱贫农户的户主平均年龄最大、家庭规模最小、劳动力数量最少、受教育程度相对最低;非农业兼业型脱贫农户的家庭规模最大;纯农型脱贫农户的家庭劳动力数量最多,且劳动力受教育程度相对最高。（2）不同生计策略类型脱贫的生计风险总值依次是纯农型>农业兼业型>非农业兼业型>非农业型,呈现出兼业程度越高,生计风险越小的特征;纯农型是所有类型脱贫农户中最脆弱的群体,生计风险和返贫风险都最大。[结论]当地政府一方面应积极帮助脱贫农户增强非农生计的能力;另一方面应完善农业生产配套设施,营造良好的外部基础设施环境,引导脱贫农户寻求适合自身资源的产业发展方式,提高其兼业水平和兼业质量...     

Jats,Khaps and Riots: Communal Politics and the Bharatiya Kisan Union in Northern India

Contrary to the general view that communal riots in India are urban‐centred, the rural areas of Muzaffarnagar in the state of Uttar Pradesh were the site of a major communal riot in September 2013. The majority of victims in the riot were Muslim labourers from the lower‐caste groups, and the alleged perpetrators were members of the relatively prosperous Hindu Jat households. This paper deals with how the leadership and membership of a ‘new farmers’ movement’ – the Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU) – actively internalized, and helped entrench, a communal discourse that preceded the riots. It argues that the reasons for why the identity of a ‘Hindu’ prevailed over the class‐neutral identity of a ‘farmer’ during the riots can be traced to the ways in which the BKU has historically sought to culturally construct the identity of a ‘farmer’. The political intermediation of the traditional institution of khaps is highlighted as central to this process. Khaps played a major role in spreading and sustaining a communal discourse and preparing the ground for the Muzaffarnagar riots of 2013.     

Vertical coordination,access to capital,and producer loyalty in the Polish dairy sector

Numerous studies have shown that processing and retail industries have actively assisted farmers in joining the modern food marketing systems. Data from the Polish dairy sector show that assistance is provided not only for the traditional‐channel farmers wishing to modernize, but also for farmers already included in the modern marketing channel. Two explanations can be provided to account for this phenomenon. One, even modern‐channel farmers may lack sufficient funds to maintain required quality/quantity on their own. Two, it may be the case that even after undertaking necessary adjustments, modern‐channel farmers are more likely to quit their relationship with a processor and turn elsewhere, in which case assistance is provided to prevent them from defecting. Using farm‐level data, we investigate the impact of supply chain modernization on farmers’ access to credit and their loyalty toward processors. Our results do not provide compelling evidence to support either hypothesis, suggesting at most a partial explanation for the existence of vertical linkages between processors and modern‐channel farmers in Poland.     

家庭禀赋对山区农户林业相关生计策略的影响研究

基于浙江省山区315户农户的调查数据,描述了山区农户的生计策略、不同类型农户的家庭禀赋、收入水平及来源,运用mlogit模型就家庭禀赋对山区农户林业相关生计策略的影响进行实证分析。结果表明:家庭禀赋对山区农户林业相关生计策略具有显著影响;在人力资本指标中,劳动力人数、劳动力平均健康程度对农户选择林业专业化型、林业补充型、生计多样化型生计策略具有一定的正向影响;劳动力平均受教育程度对选择林业补充型生计策略有显著的正向影响;在自然资本指标中,林地面积对农户选择林业专业化型生计策略具有正向影响;耕地面积则对于林业补充型生计策略的选择具有正向影响;在社会资本指标中,家族能人数量对于农户选择林业专业化型、林业补充型、生计多样化型具有显著的正向影响。因此,提出促进非农就业,鼓励自主创业;充分利用自然资本;加强山区农户的人力资本建设等建议。     

Research and Development Towards Sustainable Agriculture by Resource-Poor Farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa: Some Strategic and Organisational Considerations in Linking Farmer Practical Needs with Policies and Scientific Theories

Sustainable agricultural development is presented as a diverse and dynamic process through which it copes with agro-ecological and socio-economic diversity at field level and with ever-changing needs and opportunities of (smallholder) farmers. In support, agricultural research—aimed at locally appropriate and environmentally friendly technologies—should contribute to bridging the currently increasing gaps between scientific theories and government agricultural policies as opposed to the practical field realities that farmers are facing.

These gaps are best illustrated by—what in the West is often presumed to be—a stagnant African agricultural (in reality it is not!) in spite of many ambitious policies and projects by national governments and international donors for several decades. Disappointing adoption rates by resource-poor smallholders of the proposed ‘modern’ agricultural technologies have often been blamed. However, the actual local systems are primarily based on ‘ecological’ and ‘organic’ concepts. Localised intensification through recycling of organic by-products is an integral part of such systems. Consequently, these systems are uniquely adapted to the diverse framer needs resulting from widespread variations in soil, climate and socio-economic conditions. By contrast most international R&D support for the African agricultural sector is aimed implicitly at creating a modern conventional system of farming based on external inputs and along a Western industrial model.

To cope with diverse and complex, location specific problems inherent in development, sustainability and poverty alleviation, requires strong national research and development (R&D) institutions that adopt comprehensive, people-centred approaches as opposed to the technocratic nature of most formal international development assistance. The development debate therefore should be turned around. The ‘existing’ smallholder farming systems and their needs should be a point of departure, while the various development initiatives and policies should be handled by including the related institutional aspects.     

Greenhouse gas emissions and mitigation potential from fertilizer manufacture and application in India

Crop management research is increasingly involving farmers in evaluating new technologies, identifying adoption constraints and opportunities for improving farm performance to produce more sustainable impact. ICRISAT and its partners worked with farmers in Malawi and Zimbabwe during the 1999/2000 and 2000/2001 seasons to evaluate a range of ‘best bet’ soil fertility and water management technologies and evaluate the impact of farmer participatory research. Although there was some variation in methods implemented at different sites, the study found that there is a basis for a comparison of methods. Community entry and participatory approaches that engage farmers in decision making throughout the research-development-diffusion-innovation process have higher setup costs compared to traditional ‘top-down’ approaches. But they improve efficiency, both in technology development and in building farmers' capacity for experimentation and collective learning. This results in the development of more relevant technologies, joint learning among farmers, researchers and extensionists and better impact. To make farmer participatory research projects more sustainable and introduce them on a wide scale, the study recommends that public and NGO investments be targeted to building district and village-level innovation clusters.     

Factors influencing technological practices in the Brazilian agrarian reform

In recent decades, agriculture has responded to technology-related changes with strong productivity growth. Despite this evolution, the adoption of new technologies by small farmers has been a consistent challenge. In the coming years, the adoption of technology should be an essential element for the survival of small producers. To follow this evolution, the objective of this research is to identify factors that influence the adoption of higher levels of technological practices by producers of the agrarian reform in the Midwestern region of Brazil. Technological practices were evaluated based on the adoption of natural or chemical inputs, crop rotation, high yield seeds and mechanization. Higher levels of technological practices were defined as the joint use of these technologies, classified as technological packages. We identified two technological packages, one using natural inputs and the other chemical inputs. Questionnaires were applied to 1,162 settlers and the analytical model used was an ordered logit. Education, technical assistance and exchange experience with neighbors have a positive effect on technology use but do not favor the use of technological packages, which are instead favored by training courses in technology, partnerships with agro-food companies and resources available for investment. Thus, the government’s priority should be to offer good technical support and access to training courses in technology. The financing of production costs did not show any effect on the adoption of technology, in contrast to funding for investments. Consequently, the financing of production costs should be reconsidered to favor greater technological investments.     

农地流转多重主体博弈分析—兼论农户权益保障

土地流转是实现农业规模化、集约化发展的必经之路.农地流转是多重主体利益博弈的结果.在转入方、转出方、中介机构和政府的多方博弈中,农户处于弱势地位,其土地权益难以保障.应构建合理的农户权益保障机制,约束企业、政府不合理的利益扩张行为,使土地流转博弈框架回归“帕累托优化”均衡.     

The Closing Frontier: Agrarian Change, Immigrants and the 'Squatter Menace' in Gokwe, 1980-1990s

‘Squatting’ in the communal areas of Zimbabwe has been largely ignored in the literature because it is assumed that it does not exist in a ‘communal’ land tenure system. This article argues that ‘squatting’ in Gokwe villages has become a common strategy by landless immigrants to access land. Gokwe has been a frontier region for many immigrants in search of land since the 1950s with intense pressure on land by the 1990s. As the frontier closed, the question of citizenship in Gokwe villages became more signi?cant than ever before. Those who are not formally registered as residents are de?ned by local government authorities and established villagers as ‘squatters’ who should be evicted. The article traces how local authorities and established villagers have responded to what they perceive as the ‘squatter menace’. It further examines the means used by ‘squatters’ to lay claims to land and to defend those claims in Gokwe villages.     

Incentives and disincentives for diversified agroforestry systems from different actors’ perspectives in Bolivia

Even though diversified agroforestry systems can provide sustainable livelihoods and a resilient production of different goods, adoption remains limited in Bolivia. We examine major obstacles to agroforestry adoption and possible incentives proposed by farmers and civil-society organizations, and relate them to governance and international mechanisms that might play a role in agroforestry adoption. Market access for produce from diversified agroforestry remains difficult, as does its processing and transport. Moreover, farmers have difficulties in achieving the quantities and homogenous quality demanded by markets in the major cities. But most importantly, farmers and civil-society organizations saw little government support, although ‘ecological production in harmony with Mother Earth’ is prescribed by law and the constitution. Agroforestry farmers needed support most urgently in the initial phase, when investment costs are high and returns low. They suggested affordable credits, subsidies for diversified farming systems, and insurance against fire. We identified important albeit small steps towards developing markets for agroforestry products, but government support – mostly in the form of diesel subsidies, materials, and infrastructure – mainly benefitted large-scale monocultures and cattle ranching. In response to this, interviewees opted for strengthening farmers’ organizations, for demanding support with the help of civil-society organizations, and for disseminating best practices.