The Role of Stress Arousal in the Dynamics of the Stressor-to-Illness Process among Accountants*

Abstract. This study investigates the Kahn et al. (1964) measure of job-related stressors, and the Everly et al. (1989) measure of stress (i.e., cognitive-affective) arousal to ascertain whether the scales are measuring two distinct constructs. Data gathered from a sample of 1,618 members of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants are analyzed to measure the psychometric properties of both instruments. Results from internal consistency, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, and item analyses indicate that both scales are reliable measures and the two scales are measuring different constructs, This study also examines the mediating effect of stress arousal on the relationship between sources of job stress, and resultant coping behaviors and psychological stress symptoms by means of structural modeling analyses. The results indicate that stress arousal is indeed a significant mediator in the stressor-to-illness process. Résumé. Les auteurs analysent l'instrument de mesure utilisé par Kahn et al. (1964) pour évaluer les facteurs de stress liés au travail ainsi que la mesure de la manifestation (cognitive-affective) du stress proposée par Everly et al. (1989) pour confirmer si les échelles utilisées circonscrivent deux concepts distincts. Ils analysent les données colligées à partir d'un échantillon de 1 618 membres de l'American Institute of Certified Public Accountants afin d'évaluer les propriétés psychométriques des deux instruments de mesure. Les résultats tirés des analyses des facteurs de cohérence interne, des facteurs exploratoires et des facteurs de corroboration, ainsi que les analyses des éléments indiquent que les deux échelles de mesure sont fiables et qu'elles circonscrivent des concepts différents. Les auteurs examinent également l'effet de médiation de la manifestation du stress sur la relation entre les sources de stress au travail et les comportements d'adaptation qui en résultent et les symptômes de stress psychologique, au moyen d'analyses de modélisation des structures. Les résultats de l'étude indiquent que la manifestation du stress est, de fait, un médiateur d'importance dans le processus qui conduit du facteur de stress à la maladie.     

Multifactor Explanations of Asset Pricing Anomalies

Previous work shows that average returns on common stocks are related to firm characteristics like size, earnings/price, cash flow/price, book-to-market equity, past sales growth, long-term past return, and short-term past return. Because these patterns in average returns apparently are not explained by the CAPM, they are called anomalies. We find that, except for the continuation of short-term returns, the anomalies largely disappear in a three-factor model. Our results are consistent with rational ICAPM or APT asset pricing, but we also consider irrational pricing and data problems as possible explanations.     

Performance Measure Properties and Incentive System Design

We analyze effects of performance measure properties (controllable and uncontrollable risk, distortion, and manipulation) on incentive plan design, using data from auto dealership manager incentive systems. Dealerships put the most weight on measures that are “better” with respect to these properties. Additional measures are more likely to be used for a second or third bonus if they can mitigate distortion or manipulation in the first performance measure. Implicit incentives are used to provide ex post evaluation, to motivate the employee to use controllable risk on behalf of the firm, and to deter manipulation of performance measures. Overall, our results indicate that firms use incentive systems of multiple performance measures, incentive instruments, and implicit evaluation and rewards as a response to weaknesses in available performance measures.     

Currency Returns, Intrinsic Value, and Institutional-Investor Flows

We decompose currency returns into (permanent) intrinsic‐value shocks and (transitory) expected‐return shocks. We explore interactions between these shocks, currency returns, and institutional‐investor currency flows. Intrinsic‐value shocks are: dwarfed by expected‐return shocks (yet currency returns overreact to them); unrelated to flows (although expected‐return shocks correlate with flows); and related positively to forecasted cumulated‐interest differentials. These results suggest flows are related to short‐term currency returns, while fundamentals better explain long‐term returns and values. They also rationalize the long‐observed poor performance of exchange‐rate models: by ignoring the distinction between permanent and transitory exchange‐rate changes, prior tests obscure the connection between currencies and fundamentals.     

The Importance of Industry Links in Merger Waves

We represent the economy as a network of industries connected through customer and supplier trade flows. Using this network topology, we find that stronger product market connections lead to a greater incidence of cross‐industry mergers. Furthermore, mergers propagate in waves across the network through customer‐supplier links. Merger activity transmits to close industries quickly and to distant industries with a delay. Finally, economy‐wide merger waves are driven by merger activity in industries that are centrally located in the product market network. Overall, we show that the network of real economic transactions helps to explain the formation and propagation of merger waves.